Tommy Barrtjap (Burrenjuck, also spelled Barandjak, Barradjap) (c. 1925–1992), a Wadjiginy songman resident at Belyuen on the Cox Peninsula, Northern Territory, was well known throughout the Daly region and Australia’s Top End as a ritual leader, wangga composer, and, in his youth, a talented football player. He frequently visited Darwin and performed for public concerts as well as ceremonial occasions. With other performers from Belyuen (Delissaville) he performed ‘tourist corroborees’ at Mica Beach (Talc Head) and later at Mandorah. As a young man, he was taught to sing by his father’s brother, Jimmy Bandak, and after the latter’s death inherited his repertory and continued to receive songs from him in dream. Bandak’s and Barrtjap’s musical activities at Belyuen in this early period are described in Ewers (1954), Simpson (1951) and Elkin and Jones (1958); see also Barwick and Marett (2011) for comparison of musical practice at Belyuen in 1948 to that of recent times.

Marett first met Tommy Barrtjap in 1986 on a visit to Belyuen. He was a tall rather severe man, in his mid-sixties, the men’s ritual leader at Belyuen. At that time he was the senior wangga singer in the Daly region, and even today, some eighteen years after his death, his memory is held in the highest regard and his songs remain popular. Barrtjap’s repertory was passed on to his sons Kenny (1949–2008) and Timothy (b.1953), and some Barrtjap songs are featured in the repertory of the Kenbi Dancers, a group of Belyuen performers who continue to perform tourist corroborees around Darwin.

When listening to songs recorded by A.P. Elkin at Delissaville (Belyuen) in 1949, Belyuen people today find it difficult to distinguish the voices of Jimmy Bandak and Tommy Barrtjap; they are described as having ‘the same voice’. Barrtjap helped us to transcribe and translate the texts of his songs, which are in a mixture of his own language Batjamalh and the language of wunymalang ghosts, but he was never able to speak the words of his songs, preferring to sing them for us (very slowly, at our request, causing great hilarity amongst those present at the sessions).

Notes on the recording sample

Table 4.1 summarises the songs from the Barrtjap repertory discussed in this chapter, using the same system of numbering as in Songs, dreamings and ghosts (Marett, 2005). We provide at least one recorded example, together with transcribed, glossed and translated texts, for all but three of Barrtjap’s songs.1 Where more than one version of a song is provided, it is normally because, unusually for Barrtjap, there are significant differences between two versions of a song, or because there are a number of versions of the song by different singers. For example, the four tracks of ‘Naya Rradja Bangany Nye-ve’ (tracks 16–19) were recorded by four different singers: Jimmy Bandak, Lawrence Wurrpen, Tommy Barrtjap and Kenny Burrenjuck. Considering that these performances range over almost fifty years, the versions are remarkably similar. 94

Tracks 1–10 are taken from a recording session made with Barrtjap in 1968 by Alice Moyle (Moy68-05) (some of these recordings were published by AM Moyle, 1992 [1977], track 3). Because of the historical importance of this recording session, here we have included most of the songs recorded by Moyle on that occasion and present them in the order in which they were recorded. There then follows a sequence of tracks recorded by Marett in 1988 (tracks 11–15, 18, 20–21). This sequence is interrupted by a number of tracks included for comparative purposes made by Elkin in 1952 (track 16, Elk52-19B), Maddock in 1964 (track 17, Mad64-02) and Marett in 1997 (track 19, Mar97-04). The remaining tracks are all taken from recordings made by Marett in 1986 (tracks 22–24, Mar86-03) and 1997 (tracks 25–26, Mar97-04). Three Barrtjap songs (numbers 20 ‘Ngaya Lima Bangany-nyaya’, 21 ‘Nyala Nga-ve Bangany’ and 23 ‘Karra Bangany-nyaya’ in table 3.2 in Marett, 2005, p 247) are omitted here because the quality of performance and/or recording was insufficient for publication. 95

TRACK 1 (Moy68-05-s02)

Song 1: Ya Bangany-nyung Nga-bindja Yagarra

All wangga songs originate as the utterances of song-giving wunymalang ghosts singing to the songman in his dream. But the words that we hear are also the words of the songman as he reproduces what the wunymalang has taught him for an audience of living humans. In the course of rendering the song suitable for human consumption the songman massages what he has received from the ghost in a variety of ways. For example, all or part of the original song language of the wunymalang may be ‘turned over’ into human language and references to individuals or local events may be added. In this song, almost all the words of the wunymalang are rendered in Batjamalh. In text phrases 1–2 he announces that he is appearing (in the songman’s dream) in order to give this new song: ‘I [the wunymalang] am singing in order to give you [the songman] this song, Yagarra!’ Yagarra, an exclamation expressing strong emotion, is often used in Barrtjap’s songs. These same words can be heard by the living audience as meaning, ‘I [the songman] am singing in order to provide this song [for ceremony or for entertainment], Yagarra!’ In text phrase 3, the wunymalang (or the songman) addresses this comment directly to his daughter and in text phrase 7 he again addresses her directly, ‘Daughter! I’m singing a song.’ Perhaps the wunymalang’s daughter was also present in the songman’s dream; certainly in many performances one of the Barrtjap’s daughters would have been amongst those dancing.

Just as the didjeridu begins, we hear the dancers perform a malh, that is, a ritual invocation in which the performers call to attention the living, sentient ground upon which they dance.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

ya
SW

Ya! 97

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

I’m singing in order to give you this song, yagarra!

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

I’m singing in order to give you this song, daughter

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

I’m singing in order to give you this song, yagarra!

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

I’m singing in order to give you this song

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

ya
SW

Ya!

Text phrases 7–9

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

Daughter! I’m singing a song 98

Melodic section 3

Text phrase 10

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

yagarra
EXCL

Yagarra!

Text phrase 11

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

ya        di
SW      SW

Ya di

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled). Changes to Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even) towards the end of instrumental section 2.

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

ya
SW

Ya!

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

I’m singing in order to give you this song, yagarra!

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

I’m singing in order to give you this song, daughter 99

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

I’m singing in order to give you this song, yagarra!

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

I’m singing in order to give you this song

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

ya
SW

Ya!

Text phrases 7–9

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Daughter! I’m singing a song

Melodic section 3

Text phrase 10

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

yagarra
EXCL

Yagarra!

Text phrase 11

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

da        ni
SW      SW

Da ni 100

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

yit ngayi ngayi …

TRACK 2 (Moy68-05-s03)

Song 2: Yagarra Nga-bindja-ng Nga-mi Ngayi2

Here the text states that the utterer (the song-giving wunymalang, or the songman) is singing the didjeridu mouth sounds, ‘ngayi ngayi yit ngayi’ and then, in text phrase 2, poses the question, ‘what am I?’ This question points to the fact that singers deliberately obscure the distinction between themselves and their song-giving wunymalang. Between vocal sections 2 and 3 Barrtjap performs a high call, which represents the voice of the wunymalang (such calls may be performed either by the singer or by someone else). Whose voice are we hearing here: the voice of the ghost or the voice of the man? This is one of the means by which the singer creates a liminal space that, in the context of kapuk (mortuary) ceremonies, facilitates the passing of the deceased from the world of the living to the world of the dead (Marett, 2000).

The text is relatively stable; apart from variability in the number of iterations of the didjeridu mouth sounds and in the concluding vocables, the song is the same from vocal section to vocal section and from performance to performance. The didjeridu mouth sounds are performed cyclically to the same rhythm and set isorhythmically.

In addition to this single performance from 1968, there are three from the 1980s: Mar86-03-s01 and Mar88-04-s08 and –s09. These show that Barrtjap was still singing the song in almost exactly the same way twenty years later.

This song is one of two in moderate quintuple metre (defined by the stick beat pattern performed in the moderate tempo band). The other is song 16, ‘Yagarra Tjüt Balk-nga-me Nga-mi’ (track 22). Typically for quintuple metre, the coda uses the didjeridu mouth sounds ‘yit ngayi yit ngowe yit ngowe.’ 101

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–3

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 4d (moderate uneven quintuple)

Yagarra! I’m singing ‘ngayi ngayi yit ngayi’

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 4d (moderate uneven quintuple)

Yagarra! What am I? Ya di di …

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–3

Rhythmic mode 4d (moderate uneven quintuple)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 4d (moderate uneven quintuple)

yit ngayi yit ngowe yit ngowe …

TRACK 3 (Moy68-05-s04)

Song 3: Bangany-nyung Ngaya

This is one of several songs in Barrtjap’s repertory (we have already encountered one in song 1) that reproduce the words of a song-giving wunymalang ghost singing to the songman in his dream and telling him that he has come to give him a song. When sung in ceremony by a living songman, the 102same words convey the fact that he, the songman, has come to the ceremony ground in order to sing the song for the dancers and audience there.

This is the most popular of Barrtjap’s songs. There are dozens of recordings of ‘Bangany-nyung Ngaya,’ sung by a range of different performers, including Marett. The song has been discussed in chapter 4 of Marett’s book (2005) in far more detail than is possible here.

The song text is almost identical from performance to performance, although as in most oral cultures, there is scope for variation: the number of vocal sections may vary (in addition to performances such as this with two vocal sections, performances with three vocal sections are also common), the precise form of some song words may also vary, and in the case of those sections of text which are set as continuous isorhythm, the number of cycles and the precise place in the text where the singer stops is also variable. For example, in this track, Barrtjap truncates text phrase 6, stopping halfway through the text phrase. Another performance of this song where he sings the whole text phrase in this position can be heard on the next track.

In most performances, the song is performed with fast uneven quadruple beating for all vocal and instrumental section and for the coda, but Barrtjap’s son Kenny Burrenjuck occasionally used fast doubled beating for some vocal and instrumental sections.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

For a song, ngaya, I’m singing in order to give you a song

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yagarra! I’m singing, yakerre! Ye di di …

Melodic section 3

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

ii
SW

Ii 103

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yagarra! I sing, ‘nye nye nye’

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yagarra! I sing

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1-2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5c

yit ngayi ngayi yit ngowe …

TRACK 4 (Moy68-05-s05)

Song 3: Bangany-nyung Ngaya

Apart from some inconsistency in the length of text phrase 6, and the use of an extended coda, this version is virtually identical to the version of song 3 presented on track 3.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple) 104

For a song, ngaya, I’m singing in order to give you a song

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yagarra! I’m singing, yakerre! Ye di di …

Melodic section 3

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

ii
SW

Ii

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yagarra! I sing ‘nye nye nye’

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yagarra! I sing (‘nye nye nye’) [truncated in vocal section 2]

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5c

yit ngayi ngayi yit ngowe … 105

TRACK 5 (Moy68-05-s06)

Song 4: Kanga Rinyala Nga-ve Bangany-nyung

‘Kanga Rinyala’ is another of the most frequently performed and important of Barrtjap’s songs. It is the song that is sung in kapuk ceremonies at the point at which the spirit of the deceased is driven out of his or her belongings by burning them, and conducted, with encouragement from the singers, dancers and audience, to the world of the dead. The recorded corpus includes a large number of performances (two of which are included here—see also track 6) by a range of different performers, including Barrtjap’s son Kenny Burrenjuck. Apart from some variability in the stick beating (see below) this song is very stable from performance to performance.

The vocal section once again comprises the words of the song-giving wunymalang ghost, stating that he has come to give the songman the song. The text also includes a significant amount of ‘ghost language,’ which includes ‘ngwe ngwe’ and ‘ni,’ but it is the two vocables, ‘kanga rinyala,’ that begin the song that are particularly interesting, first because they are unique to this song, and secondly, because one of the ghost words has a tangential relationship to human language (Batjamalh). Lysbeth Ford suggests that the ‘ghost language’ word ‘rinyala’ may be related to the Batjamalh word ‘riny-malh’ (sung melody). Barrtjap and others we have consulted over the years have, however, been adamant about the fact that these are song words and not words in normal spoken language.

The song is usually accompanied by slow even beating (rhythmic mode 2), a rhythmic mode reserved for deeply serious moments. In some performances the mood of deep seriousness is further intensified by suspending the stick beating entirely: it is almost as if time stands still. The performance of ‘Kanga rinyala Nga-ve Bangany-nyung’ on track 6 shows an example of this practice.

In the coda the stick beating changes from slow even to fast triple beating (accompanied by the didjeridu mouth sounds ‘yit ngayi yit ngowe …’).

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

Kanga rinyala, I’ve come for a song

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

Kanga rinyala, I’ve come for a song, yagarra!

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5d (fast uneven triple)

yit ngayi yit ngowe, ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe …

TRACK 6 (Moy68-05-s07)

Song 4: Kanga Rinyala Nga-ve Bangany-nyung

As indicated in the notes to track 5, this version of song 4 ‘Kanga Rinyala’ suspends the stick beating in the first text phrase of vocal section 2, although clapping accompaniment in the same tempo can be heard in the background (for a musical transcription see (for a musical transcription, see Marett, 2005, p 165). Song structure summary below marks this stick suspension by labelling it ‘rhythmic mode 2b’ and contrasting it with the normal rhythmic mode 2 beating (here labelled ‘rhythmic mode 2a’).

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

Kanga rinyala, I’ve come for a song

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

Kanga rinyala, I’ve come for a song, yagarra!

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even—stick beating suspended)

Kanga rinyala, I’ve come for a song

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

Kanga rinyala, I’ve come for a song, yagarra!

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5d (fast uneven triple)

yit ngayi yit ngowe, ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe … 108

TRACK 7 (Moy68-05-s08)

Song 5: Ya[garra] Nga-bindja-ng Nga-mi

The text of this song, which is the most complex in Barrtjap’s repertory, contains the most explicitly sung depiction that we have of the interaction between a song-giving ghost and a song man. Thus, in melodic section 1 (except in the truncated vocal section 1 of track 7) the ghost sings, ‘I’m singing. What have I come to do? I’m going to sing and then go back,’ and then commands the singer, ‘you sing.’ In melodic section 2 the ghost sings ‘I was sitting on the curve of the beach singing “ni”’, and then once again commands the singer, ‘you sing.’

This is one of only two songs in Barrtjap’s repertory to use the unmeasured rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks). In Barrtjap’s practice, rhythmic mode 1, like rhythmic mode 2, is associated with gravity and seriousness. While this song is no longer sung today, the other song with an unmeasured vocal section, song 10 ‘Karra Ngadja-maka Nga-bindja Nga-mi’ (track 13) remains part of the repertory of Roger (Rossie) Yarrowin.

Because there are the only two examples of Barrtjap performing this extremely moving song, and because of some variation in the way that they are performed, both of the extant recordings (tracks 7 and 8) have been included here. Vocal section 1 of track 7 has a truncated form of the text; it is as if Barrtjap were working his way into the song. Moreover, the use in instrumental section 1 of a unique form of beating that moves from very fast to fast and then to slow marks vocal section 1 off from those that follow, suggesting that the truncation might be a quite deliberate strategy.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

ya
SW

Ya! 109

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Yagarra! You sing

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

yagarra
EXCL

Yagarra!

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Yagarra! You sing

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled) followed by rhythmic mode 5a (fast even) followed by rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

VOCAL SECTIONS 2–3

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

yagarra
EXCL

Yagarra! 110

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Yagarra! What have I come to do?

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

I’m going to sing and then go back

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Yagarra! You sing

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

yagarra
EXCL

Yagarra!

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Yagarra! You sing 111

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 2–3

Rhythmic mode 5d (fast uneven triple)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5d (fast uneven triple)

yit ngayi yit ngowe, ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe …

TRACK 8 (Moy68-05-s09)

Song 5: Ya[garra] Nga-bindja-ng Ngami

This version lacks the introductory vocal section and associated instrumental section of the previous performance but is otherwise identical (a musical transcription of vocal section 2 of this performance is given in Marett, 2005, p 163).

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

yagarra
EXCL

Yagarra!

I’m singing 112

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Yagarra! What have I come to do?

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

I’m going to sing and then go back

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Yagarra! You sing

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

yagarra
EXCL

Yagarra!

I was sitting on the curve of the beach singing ‘ni’

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Yagarra! You sing

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1-2

Rhythmic mode 5d (fast uneven triple)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5d (fast uneven triple)

yit ngayi yit ngowe, ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe … 113

TRACK 9 (Moy68-05-s10)

Song 6: Yagarra Bangany Nye-ngwe

Apart from the words ‘yagarra’ (an exclamation) and ‘bangany’ (song), both of which occur liberally throughout Barrtjap’s repertory, the remaining words of this song are in ‘ghost language’, that is, they are not comprehensible to ordinary human beings. As is often the case with text that has no semantic content, the precise form of the words has been difficult to elicit. There is only one recording of this song, which is no longer sung today.

Towards the end of the first melodic section of vocal section 2, and during the coda, the sound of the dancers stamping as they advance in the direction of the singer can be clearly heard.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

yagarra
EXCL

Yagarra!

Song-nye ngwe binya ranga binya guyanaye naye

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

yagarra
EXCL

Yagarra!

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Yagarra! Da nn

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

yit ngayi ngayi …

TRACK 10 (Moy68-05-s11)

Song 7: Be Bangany-nyaya

In the first part of this song (text phrases 1-5), Barrtjap plays creatively with the phrase ‘bangany nga-bindja’ (I’m singing a song), splitting it into separate elements and re-combining them with the text phrase-final vocables -nyaya and -aya to create a series of short rhyming text phrases. Text phrase 6 comprises the same ghostly question that was found in ‘Yagarra Nga-bindja-ng Nga-mi’ (tracks 7 and 8)—namely, ‘yine nga-ve-me-nüng’ (what have I come to do?). This is answered (text phrases 7–10) with further use of elements from ‘bangany nga-bindja’ (I’m singing a song),’ now combined with rhyming text phrase-vocables ending in –nye. All ten text phrases are sung to the same melodic section, that is, within one descent. The structure of text and rhythm set to melodic section 2 is a truncated version of 115melodic section 1 (it omits text phrases 3 and 4 of melodic section 1). Significantly, Barrtjap renders this complex text identically in both vocal sections.

We have only one recording of Barrtjap singing this song. More recently we have heard Roger Yarrowin sing it, but have not yet analysed the extent to which he conforms to Barrtjap’s model.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Be! Song-nyaya

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

I sing-aya

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Song, song-nyaya

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

I sing-ya-nyaya

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Song-nya 116

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

What am I going to do?

Text phrase 7

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Be! Song-nye-nye

Text phrase 8

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Song-nye

Text phrase 9

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

I sing-nye

Text phrase 10

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Song-nyaya

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 11

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Ii! Be! Song-nyaya

Text phrase 12

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

I sing-ya-nyaya 117

Text phrase 13

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Song-nya

Text phrase 14

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

What am I going to do?

Text phrase 15

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Be! Song-nye-nye

Text phrase 16

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Song-nye

Text phrase 17

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

I sing-nye

Text phrase 18

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Song-nyaya

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

yit ngayi yit ngayi ngayi yit ngayi ngayi …118

TRACK 11 (Mar88-04-s02)

Song 8: Nyere-nyere Lima Kaldja

Barrtjap said that this song refers to Banakula, the red cliffs in his country just south of the Daly River mouth. Barrtjap never included the names of specific sites in his songs, preferring to spell out the associations through verbal exegesis. The song is almost entirely in ‘ghost language’, with the exception of the Batjamalh word ‘bangany’ (song).

This song belong to a category of songs termed in Batjamalh lerri ‘happy’ (see additional discussion in the music analysis section of this chapter for further details).

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–4 *

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

Nyere nyere lima kaldja

*text phrase 4 is truncated

Melodic section 2

Text phrases 5–7*

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

nyere nyere lima kaldja

*text phrase 7 is truncated in vocal section 2 119

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–4*

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Nyere nyere lima kaldja

*text phrase 4 is truncated

Melodic section 2

Text phrases 5-7

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Nyere nyere lima kaldja

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

yit ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe, ngayi yit ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe … 120

TRACK 12 (Mar88-04-s03)

Song 9: Nyere-nye Bangany Nyaye

This is another lerri ‘happy’ song. In this song Barrtjap refers once again to his country, ‘my eternal country,’ but without naming it.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–4

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

Nyere nye song nyaye

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

ii
SW

Ii

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled) [moves into rhythmic mode 5c at the very end of instrumental section 2]121

VOCAL SECTIONS 3–4

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1-4

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Nyere nye song nyaye

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

ii
SW

Ii

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 3–4

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

yit ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe, ngayi yit ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe …

TRACK 13 (Mar88-04-s07)

Song 10: Karra Ngadja-maka Nga-bindja-ng Ngami

In this song, once again, we hear the words of a song-giving ghost, first explaining that he is singing for his own sake, then commanding the songman to take up the song. 122

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–3

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Yagarra! Nga mm

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

I’m singing for myself

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

You sing

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even) followed by rhythmic mode 2 (slow even) followed by rhythmic mode 5d (fast uneven triple)

yit ngayi ngayi … ii … nn

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5d (fast uneven triple)

yit ngayi yit ngowe, ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe … 123

TRACK 14 (Mar88-05-s11)

Song 11: Yerre Ka-bindja-maka Ka-mi

This song is unusual in two respects. First of all, the song-giving ghost seems to be referring to a third person, perhaps another singer present in the dream. Some doubt remains, because the high degree of nasalisation in the vocal production when singing makes it difficult to distinguish between the first and third person forms of the verb –mi ‘to sit’ (nga-mi versus ka-mi). Nevertheless, we have regularly been given the translation ‘he sings’ rather than ‘I sing’ for vocal section 1. Secondly, in vocal sections 2 and 3 the singers reverse the order of the two text phrases from that occurring in vocal section 1. The significance (if any) of this shift from ‘he was singing it, you sing it for me’ to ‘you sing it for me, he was singing it’ is unclear. At the beginning of the third vocal section Barrtjap gives a high call (representing the voice of the wunymalang ghost) while the backup singer, Lambudju, continues to sing the text.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

yerre
SW

Yerre

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

He was singing 124

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

ii
SW

Ii

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

You sing it for me, nn

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

VOCAL SECTIONS 2–3

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

yerre
SW

Yerre

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

You sing it for me, nn

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

ii
SW

Ii125

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

He was singing

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 2–3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

yit ngayi ngayi yit ngowe …

TRACK 15 (Mar88-05-s02)

Song 12: Yagarra Ye-yenenaya

This is another lerri ‘happy’ song, but unlike some of the others, here melodic section 2 includes some text in Batjamalh. Here the song-giving ghost is telling the songman that he has to sing the song for both of them. 126

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

Yagarra! Ye-yenenaya

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

Yeneyene yenenaya

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

yeneyene yenenaya

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

Yagarra! You have to do it 127

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

Sing for us both (you and me) right now

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

Ye-yeneyene yenenaya

Text phrase 7

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

yeneyene
SW

Yeneyene

Melodic section 3

Text phrase 8

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

ii
SW

ii

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled) [changes to rhythmic mode 5c at end of Instrumental section 2]

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yagarra! Ye-yenenaya 128

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

Yeneyene yenenaya

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yeneyene yenenaya

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yagarra! You have to do it

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Sing for us both (you and me) right now

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Ye-yeneyene yenenaya

Text phrase 7

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

yeneyene
SW

Ye-yeneyene

Melodic section 3

Text phrase 8

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

ii
SW

Ii

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

yit ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe, ngayi yit ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe …

TRACK 16 (Elk52-19B-s04)

Song 13: Naya Rradja Bangany Nye-ve

This lerri song has an isorhythmic text composed largely of vocables interspersed with the Batjamalh statement ‘bangany nye-ve’ (you go for a song). In chapter 3 (p 71) Ford discusses the difficulties of transcribing vocable texts with special reference to this song. These difficulties should be borne in mind while listening to the following four tracks.3

In Songs, dreamings and ghosts, Marett drew attention to the high degree of stability exhibited by this song over a period of almost fifty years (see discussion and musical transcriptions in Marett, 2005, pp 174–79). The four recordings discussed in Songs, dreamings and ghosts—the earliest from 1952 and

130the latest from 1997—are here presented in chronological order, beginning with a recording made by Elkin in 1952. The performer is Jimmy Bandak, Barrtjap’s father’s brother, who in the Aboriginal way Barrtjap called ‘father.’ Towards the end of this track the sound of the dancers advancing can be clearly heard. Bandak performs the whole item in a single rhythmic mode (5c, fast uneven quadruple).

This song continues to be sung today; indeed, in 2008 Marett sang it alongside Barrtjap’s son Timothy at the kapuk ragburning ceremony for the late Kenny Burrenjuck, Barrtjap’s eldest son and Marett’s teacher (see discussion in Barwick & Marett, 2011).

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–3

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Naya rradja. You go for a song

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yene. You go for a song

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Limarenye limarenye lima renye limarenye

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

ii
SW

ii

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1-3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

yit ngayi ngayi yit ngayi ngayi …132

TRACK 17 (Mad64-02-s15)4

Song 13: Naya Rradja Bangany Nye-ve

Lawrence Wurrpen was a man from Delissaville (present-day Belyuen) who moved to Beswick Creek (present-day Barunga) after he married a woman from there. He was recorded at Beswick Creek by Kenneth Maddock in 1964. Like Bandak, he uses only rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple) but note that his tempo is a significantly slower than the other performances, with clapsticks at 126 beats per minute (as opposed to approximately 135 beats per minute). The melody in melodic section 1 is almost identical to that of Bandak, but he uses a significantly different, longer, contour for melodic section 2. Although the exact syllables pronounced are difficult to hear in this recording, text phrases 4 and 5 differ from Bandak’s performance, and the didjeridu mouth sounds in the coda are also a little different. Overall, however, the two performances are very similar, despite Wurrpen living in a relatively distant community and therefore we have not included a song structure summary for this track.

TRACK 18 (Mar88-05-s03)

Song 13: Naya Rradja Bangany Nye-ve

The main point of difference in Barrtjap’s performance of song 13, recorded by Marett in 1988, is his initial use of fast doubled beating, which later changes to the same uneven quadruple (rhythmic mode 5c) as used by Bandak and Wurrpen throughout their performances. Apart from this, Barrtjap’s performance is very similar to that of Bandak in both text and melody, as was pointed out in Songs, dreamings and ghosts (Marett, 2005, p 178, ex. 7.6).5 Barrtjap also uses a slightly different form of didjeridu mouth sounds in the coda. 133

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

Naya rradja. You go for a song

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

Yene. You go for a song

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

Limarenye limarenye limarenye

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

ii
SW

ii

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)134

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Naya rradja. You go for a song

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yene. You go for a song

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Limarenye limarenye limarenye limarenye.

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

ii
SW

ii

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

yit ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe, ngayi yit ngayi yit ngayi yit ngayi … 135

TRACK 19 (Mar97-04-s16)

Song 13: Naya Rradja Bangany Nye-ve

This lively performance by Barrtjap’s son, Kenny Burrenjuck, follows the precedent set by Barrtjap. The performance begins with a ritual call (malh) followed by exhortations in both Batjamalh and English for the audience to clap along. With the exception of the exclamation ‘yagarra!’ in place of the vocable ‘yene’ to start text phrase 4, the text and melody are close to identical to Barrtjap’s version, as is the sequence of clapstick beating patterns (fast doubled beating (rhythmic mode 5b) in vocal section 1, and fast uneven beating (rhythmic mode 5c) for the later vocal sections). Note that this is not the version transcribed in Marett, 2005, pp 178–79, which Marett recorded on another occasion in the same year (Mar97-07-s09).

TRACK 20 (Mar88-05-s06)

Song 14: Yagarra Nedja Tjine Rak-pe

Here the song-giving ghost addresses the songman directly as ‘son.’ Not long before his death in 1993, Barrtjap told Marett that this text referred to ‘my place … my country long way back,’ by which he seemed to mean both that the country lay at a great distance, and that it had been his since time immemorial. When he was asked the name of the country he gave four place-names: Djakaldja, Barakbana (South Peron Island), Barrabumalh and Djedjekana, all places that lie in his ancestral country near the Daly River.

In 2002, however, Barrtjap’s widow Esther Burrenjuck gave another interpretation, namely, that the song had been given to Barrtjap by the ghost of his mother when she returned to the family camp at Milik on the west coast of the Cox Peninsula and found it deserted; the family had moved from there into the community of Delissaville (Belyuen).

The two interpretations rest upon an ambiguity inherent in the word rak, which can mean both ancestral country and camp (we are grateful to Nicholas Evans for this insight). It is not unusual for Aboriginal songs to exploit ambiguity and opacity in song texts in order to generate different exegeses 136according to different circumstances. The circumstances surrounding these two exegeses are discussed more fully in Marett, 2005, p 35.

Note that David Woody, the second ‘singer’ (in fact he is only playing part of the interlocking stick pattern), makes a mistake (filling in one of the empty beats) at the point where the rhythmic mode changes at the end of instrumental section 2.

This is another lerri ‘happy’ song deploying isorhythmic text and presenting the vocal section first in fast doubled beating (rhythmic mode 5b) and later in fast uneven quadruple beating (rhythmic mode 5c).

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

Yagarra! Son, where is my camp/eternal country?

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

Yagarra! Son!

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

ii
SW

ii

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled) (changes to rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple towards the end of instrumental section 2) 137

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yagarra! Son, where is my camp/eternal country?

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yagarra! Son!

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

ii
SW

Ii

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

yit ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe, ngayi yit ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe … 138

TRACK 21 (Mar88-05-s13)

Song 15: Ya Rembe Ngaya Lima Ngaya

This song is performed in the moderate tempo band. You can hear the slightly more relaxed feeling that it has compared with the energetic fast rhythmic modes of the previous lerri ‘happy’ songs (in Marett, 2005, it was wrongly described as being in the fast tempo band). Even though the beating is even, and the repeated vocable text elements (‘rembe ngaya’ and ‘lima ngaya’) of melodic sections 1 and 2 are each set to two beats, the addition of ‘ya’ at the beginning of the melodic sections creates a three-beat feel.

Another interesting feature of this song is that melodic section 1 is sung twice in vocal section 1.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1 (repeated in vocal section 1)

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

Ya rembe ngaya

Text phrases 2–5

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

Lima ngaya rembe ngaya 139

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

Lima ngaya rembe ng

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 7

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

Yagarra! What am I singing? What am I singing?

Text phrase 8

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

What am I singing?

Text phrase 9

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

Yagarra rembe ngaya

Text phrases 10–11

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

Lima ngaya rembe ngaya

Text phrase 12

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

Lima ngaya

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 4d (moderate uneven quintuple)

yit ngayi yit ngowe yit ngowe …

TRACK 22 (Mar86-03-s04)

Song 16: Yagarra Tjüt Balk-nga-me Nga-mi

As in ‘Yagarra Nedja Tjine Rak-pe’ (track 20), this song has two alternative interpretations. Both agree that Jimmy Bandak composed it for his ‘son,’ Jimmy Havelock. The first interpretation, given to Marett by Barrtjap, asserts that the song refers to an event when Havelock was working at Murgenella on the Coburg Peninsula. After getting an infected foot from a cypress pine splinter, Havelock had to ‘climb up’ into an aeroplane and return to Belyuen. The second explanation was that Havelock had hurt his foot in Belyuen, and had to ‘climb up’ onto a tractor in order to be taken to the clinic. This second explanation, which emerged at the time of the Kenbi Land Claim, emphasises links between the Wadjiginy people and Belyuen.

Observant readers might note that the question and answer in the final two text phrases yine nga-ve-me-nüng / nga-p-pindja-ng nga-p-pur-ing-djü has been translated elsewhere (song 5, tracks 7–8) as the utterance of a song-giving ghost meaning ‘What have I come to do? I’m going to sing and then go back.’ This third possible interpretation rests on the fact that the verb -bindja (-pindja) means both ‘to sing’ and ‘to climb up’.

Like ‘Yagarra Nga-bindja-ng Nga-mi Ngayi’ (track 2), this song uses moderate quintuple beating (rhythmic mode 4d). Barrtjap is the only wangga singer to use quintuple beating.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 4d (moderate uneven quintuple)

Yagarra! Nn 141

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 4d (moderate uneven quintuple)

Yagarra! My foot has swollen up, yagarra! Nn

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 4d (moderate uneven quintuple)

Yagarra! What am I going to do?

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 4d (moderate uneven quintuple)

I’m going to climb up [into the tractor/plane] and go now [I’m going to sing and then go back]

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 4d (moderate uneven quintuple)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 4d (moderate uneven quintuple)

yit ngayi yit ngowe yit ngowe …

TRACK 23 (Mar86-03-s06)

Song 17: Yagarra Tjine Rak-pe

This song refers to Barrtjap’s distant ancestral country near the Daly river mouth. It expresses the pain that people feel when, as is the case of the Wadjiginy at this time, they have lost contact with the country of their forefathers. Note that, as is often the case with songs that use rhythmic modes 1 or 2 for the vocal sections, the coda is in a fast rhythmic mode. This is to facilitate the dancing, which is most prominent and energetic in this section of the song. 142

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–3

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

Yagarra! Where is my eternal country?

Text phrases 2–4

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

Where does it lie?

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

Yagarra! This [man/wunymalang] is singing

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–3

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5d (fast uneven triple)

yit ngayi yit ngowe, ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe …

TRACK 24 (Mar86-03-s05)

Song 18: Yagarra Delhi Nya-ngadja-barra-ngarrka

143This song is connected with a powerful and dangerous Dreaming, the Cheeky Yam, Wilha, who lives in the Bynoe Harbour, close to Belyuen. Barrtjap told Marett that it was about an event that occurred when he and a group of other people went hunting on Indian Island to the west of the Cox Penisula. There was a strong tide running and because the Wilha Dreaming is known to travel on the tide, Barrtjap and his party climbed up on a small hill to wait out the danger. The husband of one of the women—a man who was not a local, but from the Tiwi Islands—went to the southern tip of the island, from where he thought he saw the Wilha Dreaming coming after him. Barrtjap calls him up to the safety of the hill. The high calls heard in the song seem to indicate not only Barrtjap’s calls to the frightened man, but also (perhaps) the high call uttered by the Wilha Dreaming itself.

This song is discussed in more detail in Marett, 2005, pp 167–70, where there is also a transcription of the first part of the song.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

ya
SW

Ya!

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

Yagarra! Wait! Come back here to me

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

Don’t be frightened

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

Kuu. Yagarra! Climb up, quick now! Song! Ngwe ngwe 144

Melodic section 3

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

Yagarra! Dü!

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1-2

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

yit ngayi ngayi …

TRACK 25 (Mar97-04-s07)

Song 19: Nga-ngat-pat-pa Mangalimba

Although this song was composed by Tommy Barrtjap, he was never recorded singing it. This performance is by his son, Kenny Burrenjuck, for whom it was a favorite. Mangalimba is the name of a woman. The word ‘nga-ngat-pat-pa’ is said to be just for song, but it is unlike any other vocables that we have encountered, and like ‘rinyala’ (song 4, tracks 5 and 6) it sounds like, but isn’t, a Batjamalh word. This lively performance was recorded at the launch of Lysbeth Ford’s Batjamalh Dictionary at Belyuen. 145

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Nga-ngat-pat-pa Mangalimba

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yagarra! You sing, you sing 146

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quarduple)

Yagarra! You sing

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

You sing the song

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yagarra! You sing

Text phrase 7 (vocal section 2 only)

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

nga-ngat-pat-pa
SW

Nga-ngat-pat-pa

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 8

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Ii! You sing the song, you sing

Text phrase 9

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Yagarra! You sing, you sing

Text phrase 10

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

You sing the song 147

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

yit ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe, ngayi yit ngayi yit ngayi yit ngowe …

TRACK 26 (Mar97-04-s04)

Song 22: Anadadada Bangany-nyaya

This song was composed by Kenny Burrenjuck, who ‘made up’ rather than dreamed his songs. The reason for this was that he lived at the community of Milikapiti on Melville Island, away from his community of Belyuen and hence his familial ghosts. Kenny was nonetheless acknowledged as Barrtjap’s main heir in the matter of songs and he frequently visited Belyuen for ceremonial and other reasons, hence his nickname, ‘Come and go.’

Kenny was asthmatic and this sometimes made singing difficult, hence the song’s reference to breathlessness. At his rag burning ceremony in August 2008 this song was frequently sung, making it particularly poignant when his ‘puffer’ (inhaler) was thrown into the fire along with his other belongings (Barwick & Marett, 2011).

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–3

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

‘Anadadada’ is the song I’m singing 148

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

I’m out of breath

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Today I’m singing

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

I’m singing the song

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Ngwe ngwe ngwe

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

CODA

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

yit ngayi ngayi yit ngowe … 149

MUSICAL ANALYSIS OF BARRTJAP’S REPERTORY

This section of the chapter provides an overview of Barrtjap’s song structures, text structures and use of rhythmic and melodic mode across his repertory, as well as additional musical detail on some of the tracks.

Song structure overview

All Barrtjap’s songs take the form of an introductory instrumental section, followed by a number of vocal plus instrumental section pairs, followed by a coda. The coda, a structural constituent unique to Barrtjap’s repertory, is accompanied by characteristic vocables (didjeridu mouth sounds), which vary according to its rhythmic mode. Not infrequently the coda is in a different mode from the immediately preceding instrumental section, and because it ends the song item, in several respects it may be viewed as structurally equivalent to the final instrumental section in the other repertories (Marett, 2005, p 93).

All but two of the songs discussed here have either two or three paired vocal+instrumental sections. Barrtjap’s songs tend to be very stable in their vocal sections, with very little textual variation. They also tend to maintain the same melody and rhythmic treatment from one vocal section to another, and from one song item to another, even over long periods of time.

Most Barrtjap songs have two or three melodic sections within the vocal section, the exception being ‘Anadadada Bangany-nyaya’ (track 26), which has only one melodic section. Melodic sections normally begin on a high pitch and descend to cadence on the note articulated by the didjeridu tonic. In most cases melodic sections are sung in one breath, though in unusually long melodic sections, such as that in ‘Ya[garra] Nga-bindja-ng Nga-mi’ (track 7), the singer may be forced to subdivide the melodic section by taking a breath.

Text structure overview

The predominant themes of his songs are acts of song-giving — where we hear the words of the song-giving ghost as he or she addresses the songman in his dream, as in ‘Ya[garra] Nga-bindja-ng Nga-mi’ (chapter 4, track 7) — and the act of singing itself. There are a number of generic references to country: for example, in ‘Yagarra Nedja Tjine Rak-pe’ (chapter 4, track 20), the ghost is asking the singer (addressed as ‘son’) where his ancestral country lies. Barrtjap’s repertory is nevertheless conspicuous for its lack of references to specific named places. This is undoubtedly because Barrtjap and his kin were living far from their traditional country on Anson Bay.

Most of Barrtjap’s texts comprise both ghost language (or other forms of unintelligible vocables such as didjeridu mouth sounds) and Batjamalh. A distinctive feature of Barrtjap’s style is that that the text in human language (Batjamalh) comprises a limited number of text formulae (Marett, 2005, pp 156–58). His songs are quite diverse in text structure. Some of his songs, for example ‘Ya[garra] Nga-bindja-ng Nga-mi’ (track 7), have through-composed text (with no repeated text material within the vocal section), while others, for example ‘Nyere-nyere Lima Kaldja’ (track 11), are made up entirely of cyclical text that is sung isorhythmically (that is, several repeats of the same text string within a vocal section, using the same rhythmic setting each time). The vast majority of songs, however, use both types of text, sometimes using cyclic text for one melodic section and through-composed text in the next. An example is ‘Yagarra Ye-yenenaya’ (track 15). 150

Rhythmic mode overview

Table 4.2 shows that Barrtjap used no fewer than nine different rhythmic modes. Barrtjap was generally very consistent in his use of rhythmic mode from performance to performance of the same song, both for vocal sections and instrumental sections.

151Barrtjap is the only wangga singer to use quintuple metre (rhythmic mode 4d). He uses a gapped quintuple beating pattern  in two of his three songs in the moderate tempo band: ‘Yagarra Nga-bindja-ng Nga-mi-ngaye’ (chapter 4, track 2) and ‘Yagarra Tjüt Balk-nga-me Nga-mi’ (chapter 4, track 22), and it also appears in the coda of the third song in that tempo band. The fast tempo song ‘Be Bangany-nyaya’ (song 7, chapter 4, track 10) is also in quintuple metre, though here it is the vocal rhythm rather than the stick beating that articulates the metre (see further in Marett, 2005, pp 172–74). It is clear that Barrtjap’s favorite rhythmic modes were fast (twelve of his songs are entirely in this tempo band). He had a particular liking for songs in the fast uneven quadruple rhythmic mode 5c and it can be seen from the table that nine songs (almost half the repertory) are sung wholly or partly in this mode.

While fast songs are associated with a happy celebratory mood, by contrast the songs with unmeasured vocal sections (rhythmic mode 1), or vocal sections sung with slow beating (rhythmic mode 2) have a certain weight to them, and it is these songs that are performed at particularly serious parts of ceremonies. Three of these songs—‘Ya[garra] Nga-bindja-ng Nga-mi’ (chapter 4, track 7), ‘Yagarra Tjine Rak-pe’ (chapter 4, track 23) and ‘Yagarra Delhi Nye-bindja-ng-barra-ngarrka’ (chapter 4, track 24) are rarely, if ever, performed today.

Presenting the same text in different rhythmic modes in different vocal sections within an item

All six songs with vocal sections in rhythmic mode 5b change in their last vocal section to a different fast rhythmic mode; the fast even rhythmic mode 5a in the case of ‘Ya Bangany-nyung Nga-bindja Yagarra’ (track 1) and the fast uneven quadruple rhythmic mode 5c for the remaining five songs (the so-called lerri ‘happy’ songs—see further below): ‘Nyere-nyere Lima Kaldja’ (track 11), ‘Nyere-nye Bangany Nyaya’ (track 12); ‘Yagarra Ye-yenenaya’ (track 15); ‘Naya Rradja Bangany Nye-ve’ (tracks 18-19) and ‘Yagarra Nedja Tjine Rak-pe’ (track 20). In all cases the instrumental sections (and the coda) take their rhythmic mode from the immediately preceding vocal section.

The five lerri ‘happy’ songs have the following characteristics in common with lerri songs in other Belyuen repertories (Mandji and Muluk):

• Fast tempo;
• Largely or totally isorhythmic texts, with some variability in the end point of the isorhythmic cycle;
• A high proportion of vocables (‘ghost language’) in the song texts.

Barrtjap’s group of lerri songs shares the following additional characteristics:

• The first one or two vocal sections are sung in rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled) and the final one or two in rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple);
• Metre is always compound, that is, with triple subdivisions of the main beats;
• The instrumental sections continue the rhythmic mode of the preceding vocal section, except when a new rhythmic mode is to be taken up in the following vocal section. In these cases, the new rhythmic mode may be introduced at the very end of the preceding instrumental section.

Distribution of rhythmic mode between vocal sections and instrumental sections

Songs in the moderate and fast tempo bands remain in the same tempo band throughout, and some —namely those that use rhythmic modes 4d, 5c and 5a in their vocal sections—remain in the same rhythmic mode throughout all sections of the song, including the coda (the only example of a song in rhythmic mode 4a maintains that mode in the instrumental sections but changes to 4d for the coda). 152

By contrast, songs with vocal sections in the unmeasured and slow tempo bands change tempo band and rhythmic mode between vocal and instrumental sections. Songs in the slow even rhythmic mode 2 maintain that mode in the instrumental sections, but change to a fast tempo for the coda, while songs with vocal sections in the unmeasured rhythmic mode 1 tend to use fast tempo rhythmic modes both in instrumental sections and in the coda.

Mixing of rhythmic modes within a vocal section

The slow tempo songs ‘Kanga Rinyala Nga-ve Bangany-nyung’ (track 6) and ‘Yagarra Delhi Nya-ngadja-barra-ngarrka’ (track 24) are the only ones to exhibit any variability in rhythmic mode within a vocal section, hère depending on whether or not parts of the song are sung with the suspended form of slow beating (rhythmic mode 2b).

Mixing of rhythmic modes within an instrumental section

In one case, ‘Ya[garra] Nga-bindja-ng Nga-mi’ (chapter 4, track 7), Barrtjap uses a series of different rhythmic modes for the first instrumental section of the first item (5b+5a+2) but then settles on the fast uneven triple rhythmic mode (rhythmic mode 5d) for the remaining instrumental sections. See also further notes on ‘Karra Ngadja-maka Nga-bindja-ng Ngami’ below.

Melodic mode overview

Every one of Barrtjap’s songs has a different melody, but the repertory is given melodic cohesion by the fact that all but one song are in the same (dorian) melodic mode. The exception is ‘Yagarra Delhi Nya-ngadja-barra-ngarrka’ (chapter 4, track 24). Perhaps its different (major) mode is attributable to the fact that it refers to a local Larrakiya Dreaming (the Hairy Cheeky Yam, Wilha), while the remainder of the repertory is associated with Barrtjap’s own Wadjiginy traditional country south of the Cox Peninsula. Given that there is traditionally a close relationship between the melody of songs and the Dreamings of those who perform them, Barrtjap may have felt obliged to use a different melody in order to avoid any appearance of appropriating another group’s cultural property.

Further notes on selected tracks

Here we provide some additional analytical notes on musical features of seven songs (tracks 1, 10, 12, 13, 18, 21 and 24).

Track 1 ‘Ya Bangany-nyung Nga-bindja Yagarra’

In other recordings of this song (Moy68-05-s01 and Mar88-04-s10 and s11) all vocal sections are sung with fast even beating (rhythmic mode 5a). This version is a little more varied in that it uses fast doubled beating (rhythmic mode 5b) for the first two vocal sections and reserves fast even beating for the third and final vocal section. The instrumental sections, as is always the case with fast even and fast doubled beating, maintains the rhythmic mode of the previous vocal section, but the change of rhythmic mode from 5b (fast doubled) to 5a (fast even) occurs towards the end of instrumental section 2. The coda, too, is in the same metre as the preceding vocal and instrumental section and uses the didjeridu mouth-sound pattern ‘yit ngayi ngayi’ typical of fast even beating. It is in the coda that the most vigorous and most formalised dancing occurs.

Track 10 ‘Be Bangany-nyaya’

Text phrases are realised as a two- or three-beat rhythmic cells, which at first follow each other in an irregular configuration but then settle into pairs that articulate a regular 5/4 metre (see musical transcription in example 7.4 in Marett, 2005, p 173). The conventions that determine the relationships between text phrases and rhythmic cells in this song are set out in detail in Marett, 2005, pp 172-74.

153While the instrumental sections and coda maintain the fast even beating of the vocal sections (rhythmic mode 5a), the quintuple grouping of the sung text is reflected in Barrtjap’s use in the coda of a quintuple form of didjeridu mouth sound: ‘yit ngayi yit ngayi ngayi yit ngayi ngayi.’

Track 13 ‘Karra Ngadja-maka Nga-bindja-ng Ngami’

The instrumental sections of this song are unusual in a number of ways: first, they employ a number of rhythmic modes (fast even beating, followed by slow even beating, followed by one cycle of fast uneven triple); secondly, as elsewhere occurs only in codas, they are accompanied by didjeridu mouthsounds from the songman. Perhaps for this reason there is no instrumental section following vocal section 3. The singer proceeds directly to the coda, which is in the rhythmic mode hinted at at the end of each instrumental section, namely, rhythmic mode 5d (fast uneven triple).

Track 21 ‘Ya Rembe Ngaya Lima Ngaya’

A similar juxtaposition of duple and triple elements, as described on page 138 for the beginning of melodic sections 1 and 2, also occurs in melodic section 2, text phrase 7, where yagarra yine nga-bindja-ya (‘what am I singing?’), is set to four beats, but the partial repetition in text phrase 8 is set to three beats. This juxtaposition of text elements set to two- (or four-) beat and three-beat rhythmic cells reminds us of song 7 ‘Be Bangany-nyaya’ (track 10). That the metrical irregularity is intentional is confirmed in the coda, where Barrtjap explicitly adopts a quintuple beating pattern coupled with the didjeridu pattern used for quintuple beating. 154