155

Jimmy Muluk (born c. 1925, died sometime before 1986) was one of the great wangga songmen. In Muluk’s performances we see the art of the wangga songman at its height. His musical virtuosity is matched by no other singer.1 A Mendheyangal man, his traditional country lay around the Cape Ford area south of the Daly River mouth, but he lived most of his life in and around Belyuen on the Cox Peninsula. For many years he led a dance troupe presenting performances for tourists at Mica Beach and later Mandorah2 (both on the Cox Peninsula, on the southern shores of Darwin Harbour), where he was recorded by Alice Moyle in 1968.

By the time Marett first visited Belyuen in 1988, Muluk had already passed away, so we are fortunate to have access to a significant body of archival recordings made by Alice Moyle in the 1960s, which represent the bulk of Jimmy Muluk’s repertory discussed in this chapter. While the main themes of Jimmy Muluk’s songs are ghosts and totemic beings, our understanding of these songs is more limited than for other wangga repertories. Even though Muluk gave Alice Moyle quite detailed prose texts for some songs (reproduced below), these spoken texts do not necessarily enlighten us as to the deeper meanings of songs. The song that the small remaining number of Mendhe speakers contributed most additional detail on was ‘Puliki’, but even here, Muluk’s prose explanation remains relatively opaque. Lysbeth Ford (2007) has previously published linguistic analysis and texts of two Muluk songs.

156

Although the track-by-track commentary may be somewhat shorter for this repertory, the musical analysis section at the end of the chapter is considerably longer than average, due to Muluk’s love of variation and mastery of his craft. Musically, his repertory is by far the most diverse.

Notes on the recording sample

Table 5.1 summarises the songs from the Muluk repertory discussed in this chapter. We are relying largely on only two of Alice Moyle’s recordings, a burnim-rag ceremony at the Bagot community in Darwin in 1962 (Moy62-26); a 1968 tourist corroboree held at Mandorah, on the Cox Peninsula near Belyuen (performers included Billy Mandji), and a second 1968 performance at Delissaville elicited for dance research (Moy68-1; Moy68-2). Moyle also recorded Muluk at the Darwin eisteddfod in 1964 (Moy64-10; Moy64-36) but the recordings are of such poor quality (being recorded inside at a distance from the singers) that we decided not to include them in the present collection. Moyle’s recording of several young boys singing at the 1962 Darwin eisteddfod under Muluk’s direction is, however, of sufficient quality to warrant inclusion (Moy62-27) (track 3). Muluk’s songs have also been widely performed by other singers, some of whom are included here for comparative purposes. These include Muluk’s contemporary Billy Mandji (recorded by Alice Moyle in 1968, track 2), his late grandson, Kenny Burrenjuck (recorded by Marett in 1997 and Furlan in 2002, track 18), and other relatives: Colin Worumbu Ferguson (recorded by Marett in 1997 and 2006) (tracks 4 and 6), Thomas Gordon (recorded by Marett and Barwick in 1997) and Robert Gordon (recorded by Marett and Barwick in 1997 and by Marett in 2006)3. Worumbu, Thomas Gordon and Robert Gordon are three of the young boys that Jimmy Muluk had trained up to perform at the 1962 and 1964 Darwin eisteddfods. 157

As already pointed out in chapter 2, an important characteristic of Muluk’s performance is the use of highly flexible forms and multiple rhythmic modes, and for this reason we have included multiple versions of a number of his songs. When we have only one recording of a particular version of a song, we have included it even if there are technical problems: track 8, for example, is included even though it suffers from wind noise, and track 20 suffers from fluctuating tape speeds owing to failing batteries.

TRACK 1 (Moy68-02-s05)

Song 1: Puliki

Jimmy Muluk’s song ‘Puliki’ (Buffalo) is one of the best known of all wangga. It is widely sung, even today. Recordings have been made as far away as Mowanjum in the western Kimberley (Various artists, 1991, track 3). Alice Moyle published two recordings of this song in Songs from the Northern Territory, volume 1 (AM Moyle, 1967a, track 13).158

159The song describes a Buffalo ngutj (ancestral spirit)4 who has swum from Matpil (a favourite camping place near Mandorah) across to Mica Beach, where he dances. The song text consists of a section in ‘ghost language,’ followed by a section in Mendhe, in which the ghostly Buffalo sings that he will always dance at Mica Beach. In some performances only the ghost language section is sung. In more public performances, such as tourist corroborees, the deeper meaning of the song is concealed, so that the song is interpreted as being not about a ghostly Buffalo, but rather a buffalo hunt. The dancing in tourist corroborees plays out this more mundane interpretation.

Two stories about ‘Puliki’ have been translated and discussed by Lysbeth Ford. The first was given by Jimmy Muluk himself, recorded by Alice Moyle in 1968:

The second was told to Ford in Mendhe twenty years later by Alice Jorrock:

In track 1 we hear a recording of Jimmy Muluk himself, recorded by Alice Moyle in 1968 during a tourist corroboree held at the Mandorah hotel. Somewhat distractingly, in all songs recorded by Moyle on this occasion a whistle is blown intermittently; this was intended to assist the later synching of the audio tape with a silent film of the dancing taken at the same time.

Three further performances of ‘Puliki’ are included in this chapter. In track 2, Jimmy Muluk’s contemporary, Billy Mandji sings his own, slightly different version of the song. On track 3 we hear an even earlier recording made by Alice Moyle in 1964 of four boys from Delissaville (Belyuen) singing at the Darwin eisteddfod. Two of these, Colin Worumbu Ferguson and Robert Gordon (see above), are still singing the song today. Track 4 is a recording of Colin Ferguson singing in 1998, also at Mandorah. See the notes for tracks 2–4 below for further details.

See the musical analysis section at the end of this chapter for detailed discussion of Muluk’s use of rhythmic modes in this song. 160

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

rimili dje the raga mele dje
rimili dje the raga mele dje
rimili dja da raga mele dja

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

I will always dance for you at Mari-pinindjela [Mica Beach]

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

rimili dja da raga mele dja

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

rimili dje the raga mele dje
rimili dje the raga mele dje
rimili dja da raga mele dja161

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

I will always dance for you at Mari-pinindjela (Mica Beach)

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

rimili dja da raga mele dja

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

rimili dje the raga mele dje
rimili dje the raga mele dje
rimili dja da raga mele dja

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

I will always dance for you at Mari-pinindjela (Mica Beach)

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

rimili dja da raga mele dja

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)162

VOCAL SECTION 4

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

rimili dje the raga mele dje
rimili dje the raga mele dje
rimili dja da raga mele dja

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

I will always dance for you at Mari-pinindjela (Mica Beach)

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

rimili dja da raga mele dja

VOCAL SECTION 5

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

rimili dje the raga mele dje
rimili dje the raga mele dje
rimili dja da raga mele dja

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

I will always dance for you at Mari-pinindjela (Mica Beach)

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

rimili dja da raga mele dja163

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 4

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

VOCAL SECTION 6

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

rimili dje the raga mele dje
rimili dje the raga mele dje
rimili dja da raga mele dja

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

I will always dance for you at Mari-pinindjela (Mica Beach)

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

rimili dja da raga mele dja

VOCAL SECTION 7

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

rimili dje the raga mele dje
rimili dje the raga mele dje
rimili dja da raga mele dja

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 5

Rhythmic mode 4e (moderate doubled)164

TRACK 2 (Moy68-01-s04)

Song 1: Puliki

Around the same time that she recorded Jimmy Muluk’s version, Alice Moyle recorded ‘Puliki’ in an even longer version by Muluk’s contemporary, Billy Mandji (see chapter 6 for discussion of Mandji’s own repertory). Mandji’s version of the ghost language text is slightly different, and the text phrase in Mendhe omits the word alawa (beach). Alawa is in fact redundant to meaning, because a local Mendhe-speaking audience would already know that mari-pinindjela is a beach. The slow even beating used in the first nine vocal sections is said to represent the Buffalo swimming, and the fast beating in the final eight vocal sections his dancing on the beach (see the music analysis section at the end of the chapter for further details).

TRACK 3 (Moy62-27-s05)

Song 1: Puliki

In 1962 Alice Moyle recorded four boys from Delissaville (Belyuen), Colin Worumbu Ferguson, Robert Gordon, Thomas Gordon and James Gumbuduk singing ‘Puliki’ at the Darwin eisteddfod. As discussed more fully in the musical analysis section, the boys’ performance shows some confusion in the text performance, and in the second half of the song uses a type of clapstick accompaniment that Muluk himself was never recorded using with this song. This example shows clearly the perils that flexible structures pose for inexperienced performers, and helps to explain why songs tend to become more stable and simple in structure over time—particularly when they are not performed by the original composer.

TRACK 4 (Mar97-13A-s05)

Song 1: Puliki

In this elicited performance, recorded by Marett on the beach at Mandorah in 1997, Colin Worumbu Ferguson, now a mature man in his late 40s, sings the same song. Here he structures the item in a similar way to that adopted by his relative Billy Mandji in track 2 above (see the music analysis section at the end of this chapter for more details). Given that Worumbu is Billy Mandji’s brother’s son and one of the inheritors of his songs, it is not surprising that this performance adopts these characteristics of Mandji’s style. The similarity even extends to imitation of Mandji’s voice quality. Marett has pointed out that at Belyuen, the imitation of the voice of a deceased singer is important for the efficacy of mortuary ceremonies (Marett, 2005, pp 68–69).

TRACK 5 (Moy68-02-s02)

Song 2: Tjinbarambara

Alice Moyle recorded Jimmy Muluk singing ‘Tjinbarambara’ (Seagull) in 1968, at the same tourist corroborree as ‘Puliki’. Like ‘Puliki,’ this song survives to the present day. As recently as 2006, Marett 165heard it sung by Colin Worumbu Ferguson and Robert Gordon, both of whom were recorded singing Jimmy Muluk songs as boys in the 1960s (see track 3). The Emmi-Mendhe word tjinbarambara ‘seagull’ appears to be cognate with the Marri Tjavin word tjinmel (chapter 8, track 39), and here refers to the Seagull totemic ancestor. Our consultants explained the significance of ‘closing the beak’ as an image of death.5 ‘Tjinbarambara’ has a through-composed couplet text whose linguistic form remains identical throughout the song. In this track, however, Muluk presents part of the text in an unusual musical form: there is a strong vocal diminuendo throughout text phrase 2, to the point where it is almost inaudible by the end. Nobody today is able to explain why Muluk sang text phrase 2 in this way. The same phrase is presented at a normal volume in Colin Worumbu Ferguson’s performance of the same song (track 6). When Muluk spoke this text for Alice Moyle (Moy68-07), he clearly enunciated both text phrases, with no corresponding diminuendo.

It is perhaps significant that text phrase 2 is the element of the song that makes it clear that Seagull is a totemic ancestor. We may speculate that Muluk uses diminuendo here in order to obscure the totemic significance of the song, just as the Buffalo dance performed for tourists suppresses the interpretation of ‘Puliki’ as totemic Buffalo ancestor. Alice Moyle did not elicit a Seagull story to explain this song, and we have not been able to either. Perhaps the story is no longer known, or perhaps there is some sensitivity about it.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–10

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Ah, seagull is closing its beak [going to die]

Text phrase 2 (practically inaudible)

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Our [seagull] is truly always there

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–10

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple) 166

TRACK 6 (Mar97-13A-s04)

Song 2: Tjinbarambara

In this version of the song, recorded by Marett in 1997, Colin Worumbu Ferguson sings the version of the text given by Jimmy Muluk to Alice Moyle without significant vocal diminuendo, but he then adds some additional (inaudible) text, which is not transcribed. As in all other recorded versions, rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple) is used, but somewhat unusually—since songs in rhythmic mode 5c usually stay in this mode from beginning to end—Ferguson changes to fast even beating (rhythmic mode 5a) for the final instrumental section.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–3

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Ah, seagull is closing its beak [going to die]

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

Our [seagull] is truly always there

Text phrase 3 (text inaudible)

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)167

TRACK 7 (Moy68-02-s03)

Song 3: Wak

This performance by Jimmy Muluk was recorded at the same tourist corroboree as ‘Puliki’ (track 1) and ‘Tjinbarambara’ (track 5). The dancers’ calls of wak (Crow) mingle with the words of the song. The song text comprises two minimally different forms of a closely related text phrase. The first, which uses kalkal (climb) as the main verb, means ‘he is always climbing on top of our stuff.’ The second, which uses putput (walk) as the main verb, means ‘he is always walking on top of our stuff.’ The use of the co-verb kaya ‘lie’, like the use of the cognate co-verb kavulh in Marri Tjavin and Marri Ammu wangga, implies ancestral action, and that the Crow here is totemic.

Jimmy Muluk also told the following story about Crow. Ford discusses this text and the text of the wangga song (Ford, 2007, pp 78–80).

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Ah, he is always climbing on top of our stuff there

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Ah, Crow is always climbing on top of our stuff there

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Ah, it was because of Crow

who is always climbing on top of our stuff there169

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Ah, it was because of Crow

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

VOCAL SECTION 4

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Ah, it was because of Crow

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 4

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)170

VOCAL SECTION 5

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Ah, it was because of Crow

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Ah, it was because of Crow

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 5

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 6

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

who is always walking on top of our stuff there171

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 6

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 7

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Ah, it was because of Crow

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Ah, it was because of Crow

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 7

Rhythmic mode 4e (moderate doubled)172

TRACK 8 (Moy68-02-s04)

Song 4: Wörörö

Like ‘Wak,’ this song about Wörörö (Crab) Dreaming shows Muluk’s love of minimal textual variation. The two couplets, ‘This was from me/Let me always walk on top of the mangrove for you’ and ‘This was from me/I will always walk on top of the mangrove for you’ are almost identical. The only difference in the original Mendhe is that the second couplet ends with -nö, a morpheme that is not present at the end of the first couplet.

At the beginning of each couplet, the song-giving ghost states: ‘this’—that is, the song—‘is from me.’ The association of this text with ‘Crab’ comes from the second text phrase, reflecting the fact that people have to walk on the sharp mangrove spikes when crabbing. The significance of the song is no longer fully understood. Perhaps the speaker is getting crabs for a sweetheart, but we can assume that, as with other wangga, there is also a deeper significance relating to death.6

Muluk gave Alice Moyle the following spoken text about Crab, which, together with the sung text, has been discussed elsewhere in more detail by Ford (2007, p 78).

Here, as in the other songs recorded at the Mandorah tourist corroboree in 1968 (tracks 1, 5 and 7), there are many vocal sections—nine in all. As Marett has observed elsewhere (Marett, 2005, p 88), danced performances—particularly those for tourists—tend to have a greater number of vocal sections than non-danced performances. 173

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–9

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

This was from me

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

Let me always walk on top of the mangrove for you

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

This was from me

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

I will always walk on top of the mangrove for you

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

ö
SW

Ö

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–2

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)174

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 4–8

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 9

Rhythmic mode 4e (moderate doubled)

TRACK 9 (Moy62-26-21)

Song 5: Pumandjin

This song, recorded by Alice Moyle at Bagot in 1962, is about Jimmy Muluk’s deceased sister, Numbali (not explicitly named in the song), who is dancing on the top of Pumandjin, a hill behind Mica Beach (Muluk’s long-time place of residence, previously mentioned in the text of ‘Puliki’ [track 1]). Although his ancestral country lay far away, to the south of the Daly River, Jimmy Muluk had a particularly strong association with this local area, now known as Talc Head, which in the 1960s and 1970s was also the site of a camp for tourists for whom Muluk regularly performed his wangga. The text states that the song comes from ‘her’, that is his sister, and precisely describes her dancing movements—a particular movement of the hands above the head that is characteristic of women’s dancing in this area.

In its playful variation of text, melody and rhythm, this song is typical of Jimmy Muluk’s corpus.175

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

ee
SW

Ee

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

She [Numbali] is dancing [making a deliberate movement of her hands above her head]176

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

ee
SW

Ee

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

It [the song] came from she [Numbali] who is standing

dancing [making a deliberate movement of her hands above head] on top of Pumandjin, yakarre!

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

ee
SW

Ee177

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

It [the song] came from she [Numbali] who is standing

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 4

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

It [the song] came from she [Numbali] who is standing

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

ee
SW

Ee

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 4

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)178

TRACKS 10–12 A General Introduction

Song 6: Piyamen.ga

Five consecutive items (tracks 10–12), of ‘Piyamen.ga’ (Shady Tree) were recorded at a burnim-rag ceremony at Bagot by Alice Moyle in 1962. Tracks 10 and 12 each contain two inseparable items, with the didjeridu stopping and immediately restarting before the final instrumental section of the first item of each pair is completed. Each of the five items in the set comprises a number of vocal sections, which combine text elements and rhythmic modes in a variety of different ways. For more detail, see the musical analysis section at the end of this chapter. Vocal sections in this song comprise 1, 2 or rarely 3 melodic sections.

In this performance of ‘Piyamen.ga’ Muluk uses three different texts, which he combines in various ways, always to create a three-phrase melodic section. When Muluk fragments these texts and recombines elements from one text with those from another to form a new melodic or vocal section, we see him ringing the changes on his text as nowhere else in his repertory.

Text A is entirely in ghost language and represents an untranslated utterance by the song-giving ghost (ngutj). Text B is in Mendhe and describes the song-giving ghost lying in ‘number four leg,’ that is, with one foot crossed over the knee of the other leg—a posture often adopted by song-giving ghosts and by songmen when receiving songs from ghosts.7 Text C, which is also in Mendhe, represents the song-giving ghost’s own description of herself sweeping the ground with her foot under her shady tree. This sweeping movement is used by women dancers in this song.

Muluk presents these texts in full, but he also fragments and recombines elements of them (see the notes for each track below, and the musical analysis section of this chapter for further analysis). 179

TRACK 10 (Moy62-26-s15_16)

Song 6: Piyamen.ga

As mentioned in the general introduction to ‘Piyamen.ga,’ item 1 and three of the four vocal sections of item 2 consist only of Text A. Text B is introduced in vocal section 3 of item 2 where it is repeated and then followed by a fragment (the last text phrase) of Text A. The variant form of rhythmic mode 4a is used in vocal sections 2 and 3 of both item 1 and 2.181

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

Item 1 (Moy62-26-s15)

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe yenetpirrang
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe yenetpirrang
karra yenetpirrang

Melodic section 2

Text phrases 4–6

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe yenetpirrang
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe yenetpirrang
karra yenetpirrang

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 4a

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 4a (var) (moderate even, with beating initially very quiet then crescendo throughout text phrase 3)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe yenetpirrang
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe yenetpirrang
karra yenetpirrang

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)182

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 4a (var) (moderate even, with beating initially very quiet then crescendo throughout text phrase 3)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe yenetpirrang
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe yenetpirrang
karra yenetpirrang

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

Item 2 (Moy62-26-s16)

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe yenetpirrang
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe yenetpirrang
karra yenetpirrang

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 4a (var) (moderate even, with beating initially very quiet then crescendo throughout text phrase 3)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe yenetpirrang
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe yenetpirrang
karra yenetpirrang183

Melodic section 2

Text phrases 4

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

She [a ngutj] is always lying in number four leg truly there

Text phrases 5

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

She [a ngutj] is always lying in number four leg truly there

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

karra yenetpirrang

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 4a (var) (moderate even, with beating initially very quiet then crescendo throughout text phrase 3)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe yenetpirrang
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe yenetpirrang
karra yenetpirrang

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)184

TRACK 11 (Moy62-26-s17)

Song 6: Piyamen.ga

At the end of vocal section 3 of item 3, Muluk introduces Text 3 for the first time. But even before he does this, he takes the fragment of this text (the last text phrase, ‘[karra] ngiya-it dörr’) that he combined with Text B in the following item, and now combines it with a fragment of Text A ‘Karra yenetpi yenitpiwe’ to create the text seen in melodic section 1 of vocal section 1 as well as in a number of later melodic sections. In the third melodic section of vocal section 1 he once again combines this Text C fragment with Text B.185

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

Item 3 (Moy62-26-s17)

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra ngiya-pit dörr

Melodic section 2

Text phrases 3–5

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra ngiya-pit dörr

Melodic section 3

Text phrases 6

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

She [a ngutj] is always lying in number four leg truly there

Text phrases 7

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

She [a ngutj] is always lying in number four leg truly there

Text phrase 8

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

Karra ngiya-pit dörr

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)186

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 4a (var) (moderate even, with beating initially very quiet then crescendo throughout text phrase 3)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra ngiya-pit dörr

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 4a (var) (moderate even, with beating initially suspended then crescendo throughout)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra ngiya-pit dörr

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

It [the song] is from me, who always cleans it [the ground] with my foot.

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

[Under] my shady tree.

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

I always clean the ground.187

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 4

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 4a (var) (moderate even, with beating initially suspended then crescendo throughout)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra ngiya-pit dörr

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 4

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even) 188

TRACK 12 (Moy62-26-s18_19)

Song 6: Piyamen.ga

The melodic and vocal sections of items 4 and 5 comprise only two text forms: either the combined fragments of Texts A and C seen in the previous item, or one complete iteration of Text C.189

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

Item 4 (Moy62-26-s18)

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra ngiya-pit dörr

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

It [the song] is from me, who always cleans it [the ground] with my foot.

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

[Under] my shady tree

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

I always clean the ground.

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)190

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 4a (var) (moderate even, with beating initially suspended then crescendo throughout)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra ngiya-pit dörr

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

It [the song] is from me, who always cleans it [the ground] with my foot.

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

[Under] my shady tree.

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

I always clean the ground.

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)191

Item 5 (Moy62-26-s19)

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra ngiya-pit dörr

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 4a (var) (moderate even, with beating initially suspended then crescendo throughout)

karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra yenetpi yenetpiwe ngiya-pit dörr
karra ngiya-pit dörr

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

It [the song] is from me, who always clean it [the ground] with my foot.

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

[Under] my shady tree.192

Text phrase 6

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

I always clean the ground.

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

TRACK 13 (Moy62-26-s06)

Song 7: Lame Fella (slow version)

At the beginning of this track, Wadjiginy songman Brian Enda is recorded giving the following explanation in Aboriginal English to Alice Moyle, saying that the song is about a lame man. Lameness is associated with the dead, and limping movements are often included in men’s dancing. In the slow version (track 13), each vocal section comprises text in both ghost language and Mendhe. The text in Mendhe describes the ‘lame fella’ as being ‘always truly there propping his cheek on his hand with his elbow bent.’

Lying down leaning on one elbow and propping one’s head on a hand is associated with receiving songs from ghosts, and is a posture occasionally adopted by old men in ritual dancing.

‘Lame Fella’ is performed using two contrasting tempi. In this track, the song is performed in a slow version, while on track 14 we hear a version with fast even beating (see further details in the musical analysis section of this chapter).

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–4

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

yele mele delhe
yele mele delhe
yele mele delhe
yele mele delhe194

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

He is always truly there propping his cheek on his hand with his elbow bent

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even) with Walakandha wangga cueing pattern

VOCAL SECTIONS 2–4

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–4

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

yele mele delhe
yele mele delhe
yele mele delhe
yele mele delhe

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

He is always truly there propping his cheek on his hand with his elbow bent

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 4* (moderate doubled followed by moderate even)

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 4

Rhythmic mode 4e (moderate doubled)195

TRACK 14 (Moy62-26-s09)

Song 7: Lame Fella (fast version)

The tune and the subject of track 14 are the same as for track 13. As in track 13, the text comprises text phrases in ghost language followed by a text phrase in Mendhe, but in track 14 the (largely) ghost language text and the (largely) Mendhe text are allocated to separate vocal sections. The Mendhe text asserts that this song ‘was from him [that is, the “lame fella’’] who is always truly walking there’. The use of the phrase ‘always truly walking there’ supports the idea that the ‘lame fella’ is some sort of totemic ghost.

Note that while the slow version accompanied the text about the ghost lying down, the fast version accompanies text in which the ghost is described as walking. We have previously encountered a similar use of tempo change to signify change in the activity of an ancestral ghost in Billy Mandji’s version of ‘Puliki’ (track 2), where slow beating was associated with the ghostly Buffalo swimming, and fast beating with him dancing on Mica Beach.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–3

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Yele mele dagaldja truly there mele dagaldja

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)196

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

This [song] was from him who is always truly walking there

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Yele mele dagaldja truly there mele dagaldja

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1-3

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Yele mele dagaldja truly there mele dagaldja

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)197

VOCAL SECTION 4

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

This [song] was from him who is always truly walking there

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

Yele mele dagaldja truly there mele dagaldja

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 4

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

TRACKS 15–17 A General Introduction

Song 8: Rtadi-thawara

It has not been possible to elicit very much information about the meaning of this song beyond what is presented in the Mendhe text, namely ‘he always walks on the top of the mangroves.’ In this case, ‘he’ is presumably some sort of totemic ghost, perhaps Crab (as in track 8). As is always the case when the singer himself is not available for consultation, there is some difficulty involved in transcribing the ghost language vocables. In the recording, the articulation of dagele is often so fast that it sounds at first like dele, though slowing down of the recording reveals the presence of the syllable ge.

Like ‘Piyamen.ga’ (tracks 10–12), this song consists of a number of items of the same song text. Here, as just seen for ‘Lame Fella’ (tracks 13 and 14), each item has a different rhythmic treatment of the text, although here the Mendhe text remains basically the same throughout, in each case describing the ghost ‘walking’. The biggest contrast concerns rhythmic mode. This song is discussed in some detail in the musical analysis section at the end of this chapter.198

TRACK 15 (Moy62-26-s10)

Song 8: Rtadi-thawara

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

Item 1 (Moy62-26-s10)

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene
rrene rrene dagele dagele dagele rrene

Melodic section 2

Text phrases 3–4

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene
rrene rrene dagele dagele dagele rrene199

Melodic section 3

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

He always walks on the top of the mangroves

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene
rrene rrene dagele dagele dagele rrene

Melodic section 2

Text phrases 3–4

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

Ee

rrene rrene dagele dagele dagele rrene

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene
rrene rrene dagele dagele dagele rrene

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 4e (moderate doubled)200

TRACK 16 (Moy62-26-s11_12)

Song 8: Rtadi-thawara

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

Item 2 (Moy62-26-s11)

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

rrene rrene rrene dagele rrene
rrene yelende dagele dagele rrene

Melodic section 2

Text phrases 3–4

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

rrene rrene rrene dagele rrene
rrene yelende dagele dagele rrene201

Melodic section 3

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

He always walks on the top of the mangroves

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

rrene rrene rrene dagele rrene
rrene yelende dagele dagele rrene

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

He always walks on the top of the mangroves

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)202

Item 3 (Moy62-26-s12)

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

rrene rrene rrene dagele rrene
rrene yelende dagele dagele rrene

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

He always walks on the top of the mangroves

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

rrene rrene rrene dagele rrene
rrene yelende dagele dagele rrene

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

He always walks on the top of the mangroves

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)203

TRACK 17 (Moy62-26-s13_14)

Song 8: Rtadi-thawara

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

Item 4 (Moy62-26-s13)

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene
rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene

Melodic section 2

Text phrases 3–4

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene
rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene204

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene
rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

He always walks on the top of the mangroves

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene
rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)205

Item 5 (Moy62-26-s14)

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene
rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene
rrene rrene rrene dagele dagele rrene

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

TRACK 18 (AF2002-03-s03)

Song 8: Rtadi-thawara

This version, sung by Jimmy Muluk’s grandson, Kenny Burrenjuck, was performed at a ceremony held to mark two events: the opening of the Belyuen community Bangany wangga archive—a digital sound archive built by Linda Barwick and funded by the Northern Territory Library—and the launch of the CD Rak Badjalarr. Barwick had been playing Jimmy Muluk’s recordings of ‘Rtadi-thawara’ to Burrenjuck prior to the ceremony. He remarked, ‘Oh, I’d forgotten that one.’ Two hours later he performed ‘Rtadi-thawara’ in a version similar to Muluk’s version on track 16, that is the version in rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple). Burrenjuck’s performance is, however, substantially faster and he uses slightly different vocables. This performance attests to the power of local digital archives to assist songmen in remembering and retaining old songs.206

TRACKS 19–20 A General Intoduction

Song 9: Lerri

Barrtjap (chapter 4) and Mandji (chapter 6) also performed lerri, ‘happy’, songs, typically entirely in ghost language and performed fast. Muluk performed his lerri song in three different tempi across three items. The first two items are dovetailed in track 19 while track 20 presents item 3. The recording of this track is damaged by fluctuating tape speed. Every effort has been made to correct this since this is the only recording of a lerri song performed in this rhythmic mode.

As always, there were difficulties in transcribing the ghost language vocables, and what is presented here is necessarily tentative.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

TRACK 19 (Moy62-26-s22_23)

Item 1 (Moy62-26-s22)

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 2b (slow even, stick beating suspended)

aa nyele nye nye nyele nye nye
ade kani yelendaga dagane dagane

Melodic section 2

Text phrases 3–4

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even)

aa nyele nye nye nyele nye nye
ade kani yelendaga dagane dagane

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)207

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 2a (slow even, stick beating suspended)

aa nyele nye nye nyele nye nye
ade kani yelendaga dagane dagane

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 4* (moderate doubled followed by moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 2a+2b (slow even followed by suspension of beating (in text phrase 2)

aa nyele nye nye nyele nye nye
ade kani yelendaga dagane dagane

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 4* (moderate doubled followed by moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 4

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 2a+2b (slow even followed by suspension of beating (in text phrase 2)

aa nyele nye nye nyele nye nye
ade kani yelendaga dagane dagane

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 4

Rhythmic mode 4e (moderate doubled)

Item 2 (Moy62-26-s23)

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

aa nyele nye nye nyele nye nye
ade kani yelendaga dagane dagane208

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even).

VOCAL SECTION 2

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

aa nyele nye nye nyele nye nye
ade kani yelendaga dagane dagane

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 3

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

aa nyele nye nye nyele nye nye
ade kani yelendaga dagane dagane

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 3

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

TRACK 20 (Moy62-26-s24)

[Item 3]

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–3

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)

aa nyele nye nye nye nyele nye nye
karra kani yelendaga dagane dagane

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–3

Rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled)209

MUSICAL ANALYSIS OF MULUK’S REPERTORY

Because this repertory was not analysed in Songs, dreamings and ghosts, and because of Muluk’s great variety of musical variation, here we provide considerable additional detail on his musical style. This section of the chapter provides an overview of Muluk’s use of song structure, textual variation, rhythmic mode and melodic mode across his repertory, as well as additional musical detail on some of the tracks.

Song structure overview

All Jimmy Muluk’s songs comprise an introductory instrumental section and a number of vocal sections, each of which is usually followed by an instrumental section. Because the recording made by Alice Moyle in 1968 was of a tourist corroboree involving long dramatic dances, this corpus contains a number of very long songs. ‘Wörörö’ (track 8), for example, has nine vocal sections and Muluk’s version of ‘Puliki’ (track 1) has seven. Another feature of Muluk’s style, which we will deal with in more detail shortly, is the presentation of several items of a song using contrasting text structures and rhythmic modes.

Text structure overview

Structurally, the texts of Jimmy Muluk’s songs may be classified into three broad groups: texts repeated exactly from vocal section to vocal section and from item to item of the same song (Group 1); texts repeated almost identically but incorporating small changes that subtly affect the meaning (Group 2); and texts whose forms change from vocal section to vocal section and even within a single vocal section (Group 3). We mentioned in chapter 2 that songs sung regularly in ceremony tend to have more stable texts, allowing clear unisonal singing and providing a clearer, less ambiguous focus than texts that are highly variable. In the case of Muluk’s songs, however, text instability does not seem to have the same implications. His songs were regularly sung in ceremony as well as on more informal occasions. It is perhaps his ability to balance regularity in other aspects of form—rhythmic mode and melody in particular—with instability of text that allowed him a degree of freedom with regard to the stability of his texts. It is normally the case that when one element of form is varied others remain stable.

Group 1: stable texts. The three Jimmy Muluk songs in this category are: ‘Tjinbarambara’ (track 5), ‘Lerri’ (tracks 19 and 20) and ‘Wörörö’ (track 8). ‘Tjinbarambara’ takes the form of a couplet that is repeated in each vocal section of all recorded performances by Muluk. ‘Lerri’ contains only vocable text, which is repeated exactly across all three items (irrespective of its rhythmic setting) and in all vocal sections. While we have only one example of ‘Worörö’ (track 8), and cannot therefore test the stability of this text over a large number of items, the text does remain entirely stable for each of the nine vocal sections of this long single performance. ‘Worörö’ also reveals an important aspect of Muluk’s poetics, namely his love of subtle shifts of meaning brought about by minute adjustments to the text. The first four text phrases of each of the nine vocal sections take the form of a pair of couplets, ABAB¹, where B¹ is an altered version of B produced by the addition of a final particle nö, which in turn produces a subtle shift of meaning.

210Group 2. Let us turn now to the three texts that exhibit subtle changes from vocal section to vocal section: ‘Puliki’ (Buffalo) (track 1), ‘Wak’ (Crow) (track 7), ‘and ‘Pumandjin’ (track 9). Muluk’s performance of the text of ‘Puliki’ is completely stable for the first six vocal sections, but truncated in the final vocal section, where he omits the final two text phrases (text phrases 4 and 5) (see further information below under rhythmic mode).

‘Wak’ is a somewhat more complex than ‘Puliki’ and exhibits the same love of subtle shifts of meaning brought about by small adjustments of the text as we found in ‘Worörö’. Except for the first vocal section, which presents a looser, introductory version of the text, all vocal sections consist of one or both of the following two closely related text phrases:

In the case of ‘Pumandjin’, each vocal section is made up of some or all of two text phrases, the first of which is sung on the vocable e and the second of which consists of variable text in Mendhe. While the form of the vocable text phrase is entirely stable, its placement is not: in vocal sections 1-3 it is the first text phrase, while in vocal section 4 it is the last. The fullest form of the text in Mendhe occurs in vocal section 2, thus:

All vocal sections except vocal section 2 use only two of these three text phrases: thus, vocal section 1 uses the last two and vocal sections 3 and 4 use the first two. All four vocal sections thus contain the second text phrase.

Group 3. This consists of two songs which have much more variable text: ‘Rtadi-thawara’ (tracks 15–17) and ‘Piyamen.ga’ (tracks 10–12). Muluk sings five items of each song, with between two and five vocal sections in each. Both songs contain an evolving and complex mix of text in Mendhe and text in ghost language. A detailed analysis of precisely how Muluk develops the texts of these two songs is beyond the scope of the present discussion, though a fuller account is planned.

Rhythmic mode overview

Jimmy Muluk’s use of rhythmic mode is the most complex encountered among the wangga repertories under consideration (see table 5.2).211

212The following comments regard only performances by Muluk himself and not those of other singers of his songs, such as Billy Mandji or Colin Worumbu Ferguson.

Presenting the same text in different rhythmic modes in successive items

Table 5.2 shows that for three songs Muluk presents a number of successive items in different rhythmic modes: ‘Lame Fella’ is sung first with slow even beating (rhythmic mode 2, with the beating sometimes suspended) (track 13) and then with fast even beating (rhythmic mode 5a) (track 14); ‘Lerri’ is sung first with slow even beating (rhythmic mode 2, with the beating sometimes suspended), then with moderate even beating (rhythmic mode 4a) (items 1 and 2, track 19), and finally with fast doubled beating (rhythmic mode 5b (track 20); ‘Rtadi-thawara’ is sung first in rhythmic modes 2a (slow even beating) and 2b (suspended slow even beating) (track 15), then items 2 and 3 are in rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple) (track 16), and items 4 and 5 are in rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled) (track 17).8

Distribution of rhythmic mode between vocal sections and instrumental sections

As can be seen from Table 5.2 above, songs in the moderate, fast and fast doubled tempo bands tend to use the same tempo across the whole song.9 Other wangga singers also tend to maintain the same rhythmic mode in both vocal and instrumental section for these tempo bands. In songs with vocal sections in the slow and unaccompanied rhythmic modes (1 and 2), however, Muluk’s practice is particularly rich in the variety of rhythmic modal combinations between vocal sections and instrumental sections. As table 5.2 shows, in these cases it is the instrumental sections that exhibit the greatest variety of rhythmic mode.

In rhythmic mode 1, ‘Pumandjin’ uses only rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even) in all instrumental sections, while individual instrumental sections in the two other songs (‘Wak’ and ‘Wörörö’) are presented in two different tempo bands and three different rhythmic modes: rhythmic modes 2a (slow even), 4a (moderate even) and 4e (moderate doubled, used for the final instrumental section in each case). This means that the dancers would normally utilise three different styles of dancing in the course of the song (one for the unmeasured vocal sections, and two different forms of rhythmic movement for the slow and moderate tempo sections).10

The situation can be equally complex with songs whose vocal sections are in the slow even rhythmic mode 2. For example, in instrumental sections of Muluk’s performances of ‘Puliki’ we find the same three different rhythmic modes (2a, 4a and 4e) as in ‘Wak’ and ‘Wörörö’, and a number of vocal sections even proceed one to another without any instrumental section (these are marked Ø in the table). ‘Lame Fella’ (item 1) and ‘Lerri’ (item 1) also use several different forms of the moderate rhythmic modes for their instrumental sections: rhythmic modes 4a (moderate even), 4* (a combination mixing rhythmic

213modes 4e and 4a which will be discussed in more detail below), and 4e (moderate doubled), used for the final instrumental section.

Mixing of rhythmic modes within a vocal section

Another type of rhythmic modal complexity typical of Muluk songs is the presentation of different text phrases within a single vocal section in different rhythmic modes. In both slow and moderate tempo bands this occurs by suspending the clapstick beating for a portion of the vocal section. Note that in the absence of clapstick beating the same tempo is maintained by the didjeridu pulse.

Muluk’s repertory exhibits numerous cases where slow beating is suspended in the clapsticks while the regular pulse is maintained in the didjeridu (rhythmic mode 2b), Examples of performances by Muluk that mix normal slow even beating (rhythmic mode 2a) with the suspended form may be found in the vocal sections of: ‘Puliki’, (track 1), ‘Lame Fella’ (item 1, track 13), ‘Rtadi-thawara’ (item 1, track 15) and ‘Lerri’ (item 1, track 19). In all these cases the didjeridu clearly articulates a regular pulse that marks the text at precisely the same point as the clapsticks do when these are present.11 In some cases you can also hear handclapping reinforcing the slow even metre, even when the clapsticks are absent. Table 5.2 shows that Muluk always exerted the option of occasionally suspending beating in rhythmic mode 2.

Muluk also uses suspended moderate beating in parts of vocal sections otherwise using rhythmic mode 4a (this occurs in all five items of ‘Piyamen.ga’, tracks 10–12). We have applied the label ‘rhythmic mode 4a (var)’ to such instances. In all vocal sections except the first of each item, Muluk suspends the stick beating at the beginning of text phrase 1, then gradually introduces quiet stick beating in the course of the vocal section, increasing the volume after the last syllable of the final text phrase.12 This seems analogous to the suspension of beating in rhythmic mode 2 just discussed.13

Mixing of rhythmic modes within an instrumental section

Another distinctive feature of Muluk’s style is the mixing of rhythmic modes within a single instrumental section.14 This occurs in two songs, ‘Lame Fella’ (item 1) (track 13) and ‘Lerri’ (item 1) (track 19) where in certain instrumental sections a sequence of moderate doubled clapstick beats (rhythmic mode 4e) is followed by a sequence of moderate even clapstick beats (rhythmic mode 4a), which in turn is followed

214by two iterations of a characteristic cueing pattern (see below). This combination of two rhythmic modes is classified as rhythmic mode 4* in table 5.2 and in the song structure summaries above.15

Cueing patterns in instrumental sections

Some instrumental sections in the moderate tempo band contain a cueing pattern typical of Jimmy Muluk’s style, and significant for the history of wangga. This is the pattern  which in Songs, dreamings and ghosts was labelled the ‘Walakandha wangga cueing pattern’. In the Walakandha wangga this pattern signals the end of almost every instrumental section, which led Marett to regard it as distinctive of the Walakandha wangga (as indeed it is). The frequent use of the pattern in Muluk’s historically earlier repertory shows that it is likely to have been adopted from here for use in the early Walakandha wangga by Stan Mullumbuk (Marett, 2007, p 71). As mentioned in chapter 1, we know that before the composition of the Walakandha wangga, Jimmy Muluk was one of the singers who used to visit Wadeye for ceremony.

Nonetheless, the way Muluk uses the cueing pattern differs from its use in the Walakandha wangga. While in the Walakandha repertory it is used for all fast instrumental sections irrespective of their position in the song, Muluk marks the end of final instrumental sections in 4a with the different pattern  (in all other cases—that is, for all internal instrumental sections in the moderate rhythmic modes 4a and 4*, and for final instrumental sections in 4e—he uses the standard cueing pattern). These uses of the cueing pattern are noted in the song structure summaries above.

Melodic mode overview

Muluk’s songs are relatively homogenous with regard to their melodic modal qualities, like Barrtjap’s repertory (chapter 4). Six of Muluk’s nine songs—‘Puliki’, ‘Tjinbarambara’, ‘Wak’, ‘Piyamen.ga’, ‘Lame Fella’, and ‘Rtadi-thawara’—are in a major mode and all are either an octave or a ninth in range, with two of them, ‘Tjinbarambara’ and ‘Wak’, sharing the same melody. A further two songs—‘Wörörö’ and ‘Lerri’—use a mixolydian series, and one—‘Pumandjin’—has a particularly florid melody that includes a number of chromatic notes and a degree of melodic instability.16 The significance of melodic modal differences is, like the opaque qualities of the text, difficult to interpret at this distance in time, though the fact that major modality is used in two-thirds of the songs suggests that these songs belong to the the corpus of a single composer or lineage.

Further notes on selected tracks

Here we provide some additional analytical notes on musical features of seven songs (‘Puliki’, ‘Wak’, ‘Wörörö’, ‘Piyamen.ga’, ‘Lame Fella’, ‘Rtadi-thawara’ and ‘Lerri’).

Tracks 1–4 ‘Puliki’

Here we provide additional detail on the musical differences between Muluk’s performance (track 1) and the three other performances of this song (tracks 2–4).

‘Puliki’ as performed by Muluk (track 1)

All text phrases in Muluk’s 1968 performance of ‘Puliki’ are in the slow tempo band. Melodic section 1, which comprises text phrases 1-3, is entirely in ‘ghost language’ and in vocal sections 1-6 is accompanied

215by slow even beating (rhythmic mode 2a), ending with the clapstick beating pattern  followed by a period of undifferentiated solo didjeridu drone17 before the next melodic section. Melodic section 2 comprises text phrase 4, which is in Mendhe, and text phrase 5, which is in ghost language. This melodic section is accompanied throughout by rhythmic mode 2b (slow with clapsticks suspended, though sometimes handclapping accompaniment can be heard).

Table 5.3 shows that the pattern is varied in the last vocal section (7), where Muluk instead performs melodic section 1 (text phrases 1-3) with suspended slow beating (rhythmic mode 2b) (instead of the previous slow even rhythmic mode 2a), and omits the second melodic section (text phrases 4-5), before performing the final instrumental section in rhythmic mode 4e (moderate doubled). Here Muluk uses a change of expected rhythmic mode to mark the final vocal section and instrumental section, and, within the vocal sections, to differentiate the two melodic sections (which are also differentiated by use of ghost language vs Mendhe). A similar correlation can be noted with regard to ‘Piyamen.ga’ (tracks 10–12).

Table 5.3 shows that the rhythmic modal structure of the instrumental sections is also complex. In three cases (vocal sections 1, 3 and 5) the rhythmic mode of the instrumental sections is the same as that of the following vocal section, namely rhythmic mode 2a. Vocal section 2, instead, is followed by an instrumental section in rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even). Two vocal sections (4 and 6) proceed directly to the next vocal section without an instrumental section, being separated only by the solo didjeridu drone that follows each melodic section. The final vocal section (7) is followed by an instrumental section in rhythmic mode 4e (moderate doubled beating).

‘Puliki’ as performed by Mandji (track 2)

This is a very long performance, with 17 vocal sections. Only vocal sections 2, 4 and 8 include Muluk’s second melodic section (text phrases 4 and 5); the remaining 14 vocal sections comprise a single melodic section (text phrases 1-3). Unlike Muluk’s performance in track 1, Mandji’s never suspends the clapstick beating (rhythmic mode 2b). In the first nine vocal sections (including those with two melodic sections) he performs every melodic section in the same way, with slow even stick beating (rhythmic mode 2a) ending with the  clapstick pattern followed by a period of didjeridu solo, with no following instrumental section. For the final eight vocal sections (10-17), Mandji changes the

216rhythmic mode to employ fast even stick beating (rhythmic mode 5a) for both vocal and instrumental sections.

‘Puliki’ as performed by the boys (track 3)

The boys performed two melodic sections with slow stick beating (rhythmic mode 2a), in the characteristic form for this song, with the usual concluding  on the sticks followed by solo didjeridu, with no instrumental section. There was some evident uncertainty about the text of the second melodic section, which one or two of the boys began to sing with text phrases 4, while the remainder began with text phrase 1 (to form a new vocal section). Once the disagreement became apparent, they all quickly reverted to a truncated form of text phrases 2-3. The remaining two vocal sections (both in the single melodic section form) were accompanied by moderate uneven quadruple stick beating (rhythmic mode 4b), a rhythmic mode never used by Muluk in any recordings of this song that survive.

‘Puliki’ as performed by Worumbu (track 4)

Here Worumbu structures the item in a similar way to that adopted by Billy Mandji, contrasting the slow even beating (rhythmic mode 2a) of the first vocal sections with fast even beating (rhythmic mode 5a) in the last vocal section. Also like Mandji is the use of both the single and double melodic section forms of the slow text. This performance can be viewed as a compressed version of what Billy Mandji sang in track 2.18

Tracks 5–12 ‘Piyamen.ga’

Examples of text recombination are: item 1, which is made up entirely of repetitions of Text A; item 2, vocal section 3 where Muluk performs Text B twice in full; item 3, vocal section 3, melodic section 2 (track 12) where Text C is introduced in full for the first time.

In ‘Piyamen.ga,’ Muluk uses only one rhythmic mode, rhythmic mode 4a, but he presents it in two forms: normal moderate even beating, and in the variant form unique to him, which we label ‘rhythmic mode 4a (var)’. In this special form Muluk suspends the beating, or beats very quietly, for the first two text phrases of the melodic section, then increases the volume in the course of the last text phrase (text phrase 3).

We can see in table 5.4 that Muluk uses the normal form of rhythmic mode 4a for the first vocal section of each item. For subsequent vocal sections, he always performs the first melodic section in the variant form (rhythmic mode 4a [var]), and any subsequent melodic sections in the normal form. The six melodic sections that are entirely in Mendhe text (marked in bold in table 5.4) each appear as the final melodic section in a vocal section, and are therefore always accompanied by the normal form of moderate even beating.19 As in ‘Puliki’ (track 1), we can see a relationship between item structure (whether a vocal section is initial or non-initial in the item), text language (whether it is in ghost language or Mendhe) and rhythmic mode (whether it is the normal or variant form of rhythmic mode 4a). 217

Track 13–14 ‘Lame Fella’

In the slow version (track 13) Muluk performs the vocal sections in rhythmic mode 2a, that is with slow even beating, with the beating sometimes suspended (rhythmic mode 2b), and each vocal section comprises text in both ghost language and Mendhe. In the fast version (track 14) the vocal sections are performed with fast even (merrguda) clapstick beating throughout (rhythmic mode 5a), and vocal sections using ghost language alternate with vocal sections in Mendhe.

The instrumental sections of the slow version of ‘Lame Fella’ are particularly interesting. Instrumental sections 1 and 2 are in rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even beating) with ‘Walakandha wangga cueing patterns’. In instrumental section 3, a sequence of moderate doubled beating (rhythmic mode 4e) is followed by a sequence of moderate even beating (rhythmic mode 4a), which concludes with the ‘Walakandha wangga’ cueing pattern  (see further discussion of this cueing pattern above). The final instrumental section uses moderate doubled beating (rhythmic mode 4e).

Track 15–17 ‘Rtadi-thawara’

Item 1 (track 15) presents the text in rhythmic modes 2a (slow even beating), with the beating suspended for some text phrases (rhythmic mode 2b). In items 2 and 3 (track 16), which are dovetailed, the text is presented in the fast uneven quadruple mode (rhythmic mode 5c). In items 4 and 5, which are also dovetailed, the text is presented in the fast doubled rhythmic mode (rhythmic mode 5b).

Track 19–20 ‘Lerri’

Items 1 and 2 are dovetailed in track 19. Item 1 uses slow beating in rhythmic modes 2a and 2b for the vocal sections, while item 2 is sung with moderate even beating (rhythmic mode 4a) and item 3 (track 20) is sung to fast doubled beating (rhythmic mode 5b). A variety of moderate beating patterns are used for the instrumental sections of item 1. Item 3 is sung throughout in rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled beating).218