219

Billy Mandji was a prolific and popular Belyuen songman. He was first recorded by Alice Moyle in 1959 (and again in 1962, 1964 and 1968) (see Songs from the Northern Territory, AM Moyle, 1967a, for published examples of some of these recordings). He was last recorded by Allan Marett in 1988, shortly before his death. In discussing the musical conventions of Billy Mandji’s repertory, we must remember that any generalisations made here are, as was the case with Muluk, made on the basis of a relatively limited sample of songs.

Although Marett met and recorded Mandji, he was never able to work with him on the documentation of his songs. All translations and interpretations presented here are the result of working with other speakers, especially his extremely knowledgeable ‘daughter’, Marjorie Bilbil.

In addition to composing songs of his own, Billy Mandji inherited songs from the Emmiyangal brothers Robert Man.guna, George Ahmat and ‘Darkie’ Appang Wanggigi. For this reason, several of his songs are in Emmi. Only one song recorded here has text in his own language, Marri Tjavin, and many that are attributed to him comprise only vocable texts (ghost language). This conspicuous use of vocable texts was perhaps a strategy for coping with the fact that he was living in a community, Belyuen, where Marri Tjavin was not widely spoken. Billy Mandji also sang the Mendhe songs of Jimmy Muluk (some recordings were included in chapter 5), and often took the role of backup singer to Muluk.

Notes on the recording sample

Mandji’s repertory was probably substantially more extensive than the eleven songs that we have been able to include in this chapter. Songs by Billy Mandji have been performed by singers such as his ‘sons’ (brother’s sons, or nephews according to western nomenclature) Colin Worumbu Ferguson and Les Kundjil, the Jaminjung singer Major Raymond, the Wadjiginy singer Kenny Burrenjuck, and Mandji’s ‘daughter’ (brother’s daughter) Marjorie Bilbil. There may still be unlocated recordings of Billy Mandji himself. The full documentation of these songs remains a task for the future.1 220

221The recorded sample under consideration here is therefore limited. Most of the tracks are taken from recordings made by Alice Moyle in 1959, 1962 and 1968 and by Marett in 1988 (see table 6.1). Other recordings exist, but for a variety of reasons we have not been able to include any tracks from these at this stage.2 Future research on these, and on the recordings of Billy Mandji songs by Kundjil and Worumbu may lead us to modify some of the conclusions below.

TRACK 1 (Moy62-27-s09)

Song 1: Duwun

This song, which was composed by Robert Man.guna (an Emmiyangal songman who lived in the first half of the twentieth century), belongs to a series about pörrme (Mendhe ‘sea’) made by Man.guna’s brother ‘Darkie’ Appang Wanggigi and was first recorded by Alice Moyle in 1962 at Bagot (Darwin). It is about Duwun, the island off the west coast of the Cox Peninsula known in English as ‘Indian Island.’

222Melodic section 1 comprises untranslated ghost language (this melodic section is presented twice in vocal section 1, but only once in later vocal sections). Melodic section 2 comprises text in Emmi, which explains that the preceding ghost language came from Duwun, where ‘he’ (that is, the song-giving ghost) sat down and sang it. Note that the composer is here describing his dream vision. Speaking to Alice Moyle 1968, Billy Mandji said, ‘I sat down and sang the song from Duwun’ (nginen-djedjet-manhdha duwun-ngana-yi).

After every second vocal section there is an instrumental section using fast uneven quadruple beating (rhythmic mode 5c).

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–4

Melodic section 1 (repeated in vocal section 1)

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

dagan mele dagaldja dagan mele nele
dagan mele dagaldja dagan mele nele

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

ee

Melodic section 2

Text phrase 4

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

This came from Duwun,

Text phrase 5

Rhythmic Mode 1 (without clapsticks)

That’s what he sang223

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1 (follows vocal section 2)

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2 (follows vocal section 4)

Rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple)

TRACK 2 (Mar88-40-s12)

Song 1: Duwun

This recording was made at a burnim-rag (rag-burning) ceremony at Batchelor in 1988. It was the one and only time Marett recorded Mandji, who was already advanced in years. We are able to compare this version with track 1, recorded over a quarter of a century earlier by Alice Moyle.

It is remarkable how little ‘Duwun’ has changed over the course of 26 years. The two vocal sections present the same text, to the same melody, using the same rhythmic modes as the first two vocal sections of the 1968 performance, right down to the repetition of melodic section 1 in vocal section 1. The most striking differences between this version and the version in track 1 lie in the instrumental sections.

First, in the 1988 performance, instrumental sections follow each of the two vocal sections, whereas in 1962 instrumental sections occurred only after every second vocal section. Secondly, Mandji used different beating patterns in the instrumental sections (see further details in the music analysis section at the end of this chapter). The reason for these changes is that in 1962 he was performing the song at Bagot for Belyuen dancers, whereas in 1988 he was performing for a group of dancers from Peppimenarti, where the Walakandha wangga is used for all public ceremonies. In order to make the performances work, Mandji chose to adopt the form of stick beating that his dancers were familiar with, thus displaying his command of the wangga style as performed across the whole Daly region.

TRACK 3 (Moy68-01-s01)

Song 2: Happy (lerri) Song No. 1

This ‘happy’ (lerri) dance song was recorded by Alice Moyle at a tourist corroborree at Mandorah in 1968. Track 4 has a version of the same song recorded at a burnim-rag ceremony at Batchelor in 1988. As is often the case with lerri dances, the tempo is fast and the song comprises a high proportion of vocables (see previous discussion in chapters 4 and 5).

Here, the section in Mendhe (text phrase 3) is an exhortation to dance to the section in vocables (text phrases 1 and 2) that precedes it. Dancing with hands above head is a characteristic of women’s dancing and was mentioned in Muluk’s song ‘Pumandjin’ (chapter 5, track 9). The sounds of dance-calls and the dancers’ feet beating on the ground can be heard during the instrumental sections on this recording. 224

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–5

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)[beating wholly or partially suspended in vocal sections 3, 4 and 5 (rhythmic mode 5a [var])

nye nye nyelene nye nye nye nye
nye nye nyelene nye nye nye nye

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even beating)

Let’s both always keep dancing (with our hands above our heads)

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–5

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even beating)

TRACK 4 (Mar88-41-s04)

Song 2: Happy (lerri) Song No. 1

In this short ceremonial performance of the song, which follows that of 1968 in all major respects (including the suspension of beating for the first text phrase of the second vocal section), the sounds of dancing and/or mourning relatives can be heard. The 1988 performance is, however, slightly faster in tempo (141bpm) than the 1968 performance (138bpm). This may be because it is danced in a ceremonial context.

TRACK 5 (Moy68-01-s02)

Song 3: Happy (lerri) Song No. 2

Like ‘Happy Song No. 1,’ Billy Mandji’s second happy (lerri) song is in rhythmic mode 5a (fast even beating) although the beating is suspended in vocal section 1 (which has no following instrumental section). Like many happy songs, it consists entirely of unglossable ‘ghost language,’ that is, it is made of entirely of vocables. Like the track 3 performance of ‘Happy Song No.1,’ it was recorded by Alice Moyle in 1968 at Mandorah.

Later that year, Moyle returned and had Billy Mandji speak the words of the song for her. Although there is no exact correspondence between the sung version and his spoken text—which is given in disjointed fragments and includes some text not actually in the song—there is enough for us to transcribe what is sung with some confidence, although the performance of the vocable ‘word’ ribene seems to be frequently elided to rene. Note that text phrases 1 and 2, which repeat the vocable text ‘da ribene ribene ana anarra,’ are performed with a strong nasal timbre, contrasting with the throatier and smoother timbre of text phrase 3 ‘at bwat bwane ribene yenet di’. This gives the effect of two alternating voices, as in a conversation.

This long danced performance comprises ten repetitions of the vocal section, with an instrumental section following each vocal section except the first.226

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–10

Melodic section 1

Text phrases 1–2

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even) (beating is suspended (rhythmic mode 5a [var]) for text phrase 1 in vocal section 1)

da ribene ribene ana anarra
da ribene ribene ana anarra

Text phrase 3

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

at bwat bwane ribene yenet di

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–9 (there is no instrumental section after vocal section 1)

Rhythmic mode 5a (fast even)

TRACK 6 (Moy62-27-s10)

Song 4: Happy (lerri) Song No. 3

Happy (lerri) Song No. 3 was recorded by Alice Moyle at Bagot in 1962.3 Like the preceding happy songs, this performance is fast (in rhythmic mode 5a [fast even beating]) and predominantly in ‘ghost language’ (vocable text), though in vocal section 5, melodic section 1 bears the following text in Emmi: karra ka-me-ngana-yi gidji-djedjet-mandha-ya ‘This [i.e., the vocable text] is what he sang when he gave me this song’.4 Despite many hours working with native speakers, we have not been able to arrive at a reliable version of the text, so have decided not to include a text transcription here, but can make some statements about the form (see further details in music analysis section).

TRACK 7 (Moy68-01-s03)

Song 5: Duwun Crab Song

227As in the preceding track, the text in Emmi (text phrase 2) explains that the preceding section in ghost language (text phrase 1) came from a ghost, that is, ‘the one who is always singing this.’

This long performance—comprising twelve vocal sections—was recorded by Alice Moyle in 1968 at a tourist corroborree at Mandorah (Jimmy Muluk was also recorded on this occasion, see chapter 5). It accompanies the Crab dance, which continued to be performed at tourist corroborees at the Mandorah Hotel into the 1990s and beyond (albeit to a different song). The text has no direct relationship to the subject matter of the dance, during which the dancers mime hunting for and catching a crab (the dancers can be heard occasionally in the background). Unusually, there is only one instrumental section in this performance, which occurs after the final vocal section. Here the dancers, having caught the crab, perform the stamping movements typical of wangga.

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–12

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

yene ne yene ne
yene ne yene ne

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

This song came from the one who is always singing this

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1 (after final vocal section)

Rhythmic mode 4e (moderate doubled)228

TRACK 8 (Mar88-40-s13)

Song 6: Karra Mele Ngany-endheni-nö

Marett recorded this at the same 1988 burnim-rag as track 4. Vocal sections 1 and 3 are in Mendhe, while vocal sections 2 and 4 are in Marri Tjavin (Mandji’s ancestral language). It is rare for songs to mix languages in this way; we may speculate that this song might have been formed from two previously independent songs, which here have been interleaved. Instrumental sections occur after every two vocal sections, that is, following the Marri Tjavin vocal sections 2 and 4.

Although there is still a great deal that we do not understand about this song—including the reason for the combination of these particular two languages—the subject matter of the two pairs of vocal sections is clearly a totemic song-giving ghost. The word for ‘brother’ (mele in Mendhe or mana in Marri Tjavin) is the relationship term used in these languages and other wangga songs to address totemic ghosts (Marett, 2005, p 114), and the reference to ‘number four leg’ evokes a characteristic of song-giving ghosts that is mentioned often in wangga songs (see, for example Muluk’s song ‘Piyamen. ga’ chapter 5, tracks 10–12).

It may be noted that there seems to be some instability in the form of the vocable text that begins each vocal section. The Mendhe expression mörö-gumbu, literally ‘buttock-foot’, is an idiom meaning ‘from top to bottom’ or ‘right through,’ which here means ‘all night long.’229

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTION 1 (Mendhe)

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

nyele nye nyele nye
nyele nye nyele nye

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

This is for my brother now

VOCAL SECTION 2 (Marri Tjavin)

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

nyele nye nyele nye
nyele nye nyele nye

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

You have to always look out for my brother,

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 1

Rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even)

VOCAL SECTION 3 (Mendhe)

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

nyele nye nyele nye
nyele nye nyele nye

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

This is from my brother who sang this for me now

VOCAL SECTION 4 (Marri Tjavin)

Melodic section 1

Text phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 2 (slow even)

nyele nye nyele nye
nyele nye nyele nye

Text phrase 2

Rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks)

You have to always look out for my brother,231

INSTRUMENTAL SECTION 2

Rhythmic mode 4e (moderate doubled) with Walakandha wangga cueing patterns

TRACK 9 (Moy59-03-s03)

Song 7: Song from Anson Bay

Tracks 9 and 10 were recorded by Alice Moyle at Bagot in 1959. This song, which Moyle titled ‘Song from Anson Bay’, is entirely in the language of a ghost (ngutj), that is, it comprises entirely untranslatable vocables, the transcription of which is only approximate.

The first item (track 9) begins with wordless melody, from which the vocable text and the clapstick beating gradually emerge (see the music analysis section for further details).5 The text as given is repeated with little change in the three subsequent vocal sections. Note that a final clapstick beat that might have been expected at the end of track 9 (compare with the end of track 10) was missing from Moyle’s original recording of this item.

SONG STRUCTURE SUMMARY

VOCAL SECTION 1

Melodic section 1

Text Phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 4b (var) (moderate uneven quadruple, suspended initially, then 4b emerges gradually)

mm mm ne rrene ne
ne rrene ne ne rrene ne
ee ö 232

VOCAL SECTIONS 2–4

Melodic section 1

Text Phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 4b (moderate uneven quadruple)

ne rrene ne ne rrene ne
ne rrene ne ne rrene ne
ee ö

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–4

Rhythmic mode 4b (moderate uneven quadruple)

TRACK 10 (Moy59-3-s04)

Song 7: Song from Anson Bay

In item 2 (track 10) a slightly but consistently different version of the text can be heard throughout.

VOCAL SECTIONS 1–4

Melodic section 1

Text Phrase 1

Rhythmic mode 4b (moderate uneven quadruple)

rrene rrene ne ne rrene ne
rrene rrene ne ne rrene ne
ee ö

INSTRUMENTAL SECTIONS 1–4

Rhythmic mode 4b (moderate uneven quadruple)233

TRACK 11 (Moy62-27-s08)

Song 8: Robert Man.guna’s Song

This song was composed by the Emmiyangal songman Robert Man.guna, who was also the composer of Duwun (tracks 1 and 2). Various features suggest that this may be another ‘happy’ song (see the music analysis section for further details). As in tracks 9 and 10, the text comprises untranslatable ghost language, but here each vocal section begins with wordless melody. Once again, it has proven impossible to obtain a reliable transcription of the vocables, and therefore no text is given here.

TRACK 12 (Mar88-40-s09)

Song 9: Happy (lerri) Song No. 4

Tracks 12–14 were recorded by Marett at the same burnim-rag as tracks 2, 4 and 8. We have identified all three as ‘happy songs’ based on their musical and textual characteristics. All have unglossable and unstable vocable texts, which we do not include here.

Track 12 is in moderate tempo, slower than most happy songs.

TRACK 13 (Mar88-42-s04)

Song 10: Happy (lerri) Song No. 5

As one expects of performances at the height of ceremony, the tempo is at the high end of the fast tempo band (about 140 beats per minute). This performance begins with a ritual call, or malh, by the dancers. This and the following track 14 were recorded from amongst the dancers, so the singing is somewhat distant; we have decided to include them here, however, because they give a sense of the lively atmosphere at a ceremony.

TRACK 14 (Mar88-42-s05)

Song 11: Happy (lerri) Song No. 6

Like the preceding track, this song has a purely vocable text and is performed at faster tempo than usual, although here the beating is in the uneven quadruple rhythmic mode (5c).234

MUSICAL ANALYSIS OF MANDJI’S REPERTORY

Because this repertory was not analysed in Songs, dreamings and ghosts we provide here additional detail on Mandji’s musical style. This section of the chapter provides an overview of Mandji’s use of song structure, textual variation, rhythmic mode and melodic mode across his repertory, as well as additional musical detail on some of the tracks.

Song structure overview

Like most wangga songs, those of Billy Mandji alternate vocal and instrumental sections. Some of his performances, particularly those recorded by Alice Moyle at the tourist corroboree in 1968, have, like those of Muluk recorded on the same occasion, a particularly large number of vocal sections, for example, ‘Happy Song No. 2’ (track 5) has 10 vocal sections, ‘Duwun Crab Song’ (track 7) has 12, and Mandji’s version of Muluk’s ‘Puliki’ (chapter 4, track 2) has 17.

Text structure overview

Overall, the majority of Mandji’s text phrases are in non-human language. Since he did not live in the country of his Marri Tjavin ancestors, Mandji would not have been in a position to receive songs from them on a regular basis, since, as noted in chapter 4 with regard to Barrtjap, song-giving ancestors do not travel far from their country-based sites. Except for the mixed Mendhe and Marri Tjavin in ‘Karra Mele Ngany-endheni-nö’ and some Mendhe text in ‘Happy (lerri) Song No. 1’ (track 3), all the human language text in Mandji’s songs is in Emmi. We know that Mandji inherited songs from the Emmiyangal songmen, Robert Man.guna and his brothers, and we might reasonably assume that the songs with text in Emmi came from them. The predominance of vocable text phrases in Mandji’s own songs might result from the fact that Mandji could neither receive texts in the language of his ancestors, nor translate them into the languages local to the area around Belyuen, where he had chosen to live. On the other hand, songs with vocable texts that are opaque to all participants in ritual may serve a useful function in a multilingual environment precisely because they do not privilege the language of any one group, as Barwick has observed with regard to songs in Western Arnhem Land, (Manmurulu, et al., 2008). Belyuen was, at the time Mandji was composing his songs, just such a multilingual environment.

Texts that comprise three text phrases, the first two of which are identical and the third different, are common in the songs of Billy Mandji; indeed all six songs for which we have obtained texts conform to this pattern. Three—‘Happy Song No. 1’, (track 3), ‘Duwun Crab Song’ (track 7) and ‘Karra Mele Ngany-endheni-nö’ (track 8)—have text in the form aaB, that is, a pair of text phrases in vocables (ghost language, indicated by lower case) followed by a text phrase in human language (indicated by upper case). In the first two songs the human language is in Emmi or Mendhe, but in ‘Karra Mele Ngany-endheni-nö’ Mandji alternates between Mendhe and Marri Tjavin in successive vocal sections, and in this song the text phrase in human language is unusually long. In ‘Duwun’ a pair of text phrases in ghost language are followed by a second pair in Emmi (aaBC). Two further songs, ‘Happy Song No. 2’, (track 5) and ‘Song from Anson Bay’ (tracks 9 and 10) have text phrases that are entirely in vocables in the form aab, and ‘Happy Song No. 5’, (track 13), although not transcribed, also clearly conforms to the aab form.

This common structure in Mandji’s repertory is comparable to that labelled Group 2 in the Walakandha wangga repertory (Marett, 2005, p 122). Here each vocal section comprises three text phrases, the first two of which are identical and the third different. The form of these Walakandha wangga Group 2B songs can be represented as AAb, where upper case letters represent text in human language (Marri Tjavin) and lower case represents text using vocables (ghost language).235

It may not be entirely coincidental that Billy Mandji’s song texts conform to a pattern that is also prominent in the principal Marri Tjavin repertory, the Walakandha wangga. Let us not forget that although he lived much of his life at Belyuen, Mandji was Marri Tjavin and maintained links with his Marri Tjavin kin living at Wadeye and its associated outstations. On the other hand, since two of the three Mandji texts with the form aaB have Emmi as the language of the human language text phrase, we cannot tie this form exclusively to Marri Tjavin precedents, or see it as strongly marking Mandji’s Marri Tjavin heritage.

Rhythmic mode overview

None of Billy Mandji’s vocal sections are entirely without clapstick beating (rhythmic mode 1). Neither are any songs entirely in rhythmic mode 2 (slow even). Rather, three songs use a combination of rhythmic modes 1 and 2 (without clapsticks and slow even beating respectively) for their vocal sections (see table 6.2).

Distribution of rhythmic mode between vocal sections and instrumental sections

All songs in the fast and moderate tempo band use the same tempo (and usually the same rhythmic mode) for both the vocal and instrumental sections and have texts that are by and large stable and predictable. They are wonderful vehicles for vigorous and often ostentatious dancing, and are for this reason are very popular. The repertory contains a large number of ‘happy’ (lerri) songs, that is, lively songs with texts that comprise mostly vocables. These are mostly in the fast tempo band, but one (‘Happy Song No. 4’, track 12) is in the moderate tempo band.

As we observed in Barrtjap’s repertory, a high proportion of songs have vocal sections in the fast tempo band. In Mandji’s repertory, the majority are in the fast even rhythmic mode (5a), while only one, ‘Happy Song No. 6’, (track 14) uses the fast uneven (quadruple) rhythmic mode (rhythmic mode 5c) preferred in Barrtjap’s repertory.

Presenting the same text in different rhythmic modes in different vocal sections within an item

Both moderate tempo songs show variation across vocal sections within an item in their use of rhythmic mode. ‘Happy Song No. 4’, (track 12) uses the unusual moderate uneven (triple) beating (rhythmic mode 4c) for vocal section 1 and the following instrumental section, and then moderate even beating (rhythmic mode 4a) for the remaining vocal and instrumental sections, while the first item of ‘Song from Anson Bay’ (tracks 9), uses an unusual suspended form of rhythmic mode 4b (var) in the first vocal section only, with rhythmic mode 4b (moderate uneven quadruple) being used for the rest of the item and throughout the following item (track 10).

Variation in rhythmic mode between vocal sections according to their position within an item can also be found in ‘Happy Song No. 1’ (tracks 3–4), where the initial vocal sections use rhythmic mode 5a (fast even), whereas the later vocal sections begin with a suspended form of this pattern (rhythmic mode 5a [var]). In ‘Happy Song No. 2’ (track 5), the reverse applies, where the suspended form is used in the first vocal section, while the later ones use the normal form of beating (see further below).

Mixing of rhythmic modes within a vocal section

Mandji’s repertory has a number of instances of the use of different rhythmic modes within a vocal section.

As mentioned above, the three slow songs in Mandji’s repertory each use a combination of rhythmic modes 2 and 1 (slow even beating and without clapsticks respectively) for their vocal sections (see table 6.2).6 In each case the vocal section is made up of one or more melodic sections that begin with slow even beating for the first text phrases and then change to unmeasured style for the final text phrases in the melodic section. In two cases the two rhythmic modes are used in an interesting relationship with the textual contrast between ghost language and human language.7 In ‘Duwun Crab Song’ (track 7) and ‘Karra mele ngany-endheni-nö’ (track 8), rhythmic mode 2 (slow even) is used for the text in ghost language (vocables) while rhythmic mode 1 (without clapsticks) is used for text in human language (Emmi).8

237Mandji also unusually suspends the fast even stickbeating (rhythmic mode 5a) in the ghost language text phrases (1-2) of the last three vocal sections of ‘Happy Song No. 1’ (track 3), with the normal form employed for text phrase 3, which is in human language. The same effect is employed in ‘Happy Song No. 2’ (track 5), but here, instead of being in human language, text phrase 3 is also performed in ghost language, but with a very different vocal timbre and with different vocables from those used in text phrases 1-2. This seems to confirm that Mandji deliberately used variation in rhythmic mode to set off different ‘voices’ in his song texts.

Another possible instance of mixing rhythmic modes within a single vocal section occurs in Mandji’s performance of the first item of ‘Song from Anson Bay’ (chapter 6, track 9), where he begins singing wordless melody very quietly. As the volume increases through the first vocal section, the vocable text and the clapstick beating (in moderate uneven quadruple rhythmic mode 4b) gradually emerge. This is the only instance across the whole corpus of this use of crescendo in stickbeating accompaniment, though Jimmy Muluk’s ‘Piyamen.ga’ contains numerous instances of suspended beating, sometimes with a crescendo in the course of a text phrase, in rhythmic mode 4a (var) (see for example chapter 5, track 12). Since this is a single instance that is not repeated in any other songs in Mandji’s recorded repertory, we are not certain whether this variant of rhythmic mode 4b was used systematically within the rhythmic modal system. On the other hand, it seems likely that recordings capture only a small part of Mandji’s whole repertory, so we have included this variant form as rhythmic mode 4b (var) in the table of rhythmic modes in chapter 2 (table 2.1).

Variation in rhythmic mode of instrumental sections across items

When Mandji performed ‘Duwun’ (track 1) in 1962, his dancers were from Delissaville (Belyuen) and for this reason he adopted for the instrumental section rhythmic mode 5c (fast uneven quadruple), which provides the best vehicle for the style of dancing favoured at Belyuen. When he performed the same song in 1988 at a burnim-rag ceremony at Batchelor, however, the dancers were from Wadeye and Peppimenarti. For this occasion Mandji performed the instrumental sections of ‘Duwun’ (track 2) in the form commonly used in the Walakandha wangga, that is, using rhythmic mode 5a (fast even) beating plus Walakandha wangga cueing patterns for the non-final instrumental sections, and rhythmic mode 5b (fast doubled) plus Walakandha wangga cueing pattern for the final instrumental section. The dancers were thus able to perform in the style most familiar to them, thus ensuring the success of the ceremonial dancing on this occasion.

Melodic mode overview

Turning now to the question of melody, the vast majority of Billy Mandji’s songs are, like those of Jimmy Muluk, sung in a major mode. It is difficult to interpret this as marking Mandji’s Marri Tjavin identity, however, since the majority of Walakandha wangga songs and Ma-yawa wangga songs are in the dorian mode, a mode that Mandji does not employ at all. True, both repertories do have a small number of songs in the major mode, for example Philip Mullumbuk’s Walakandha wangga songs, but they can hardly be regarded as representative. It is more likely perhaps, given the closeness of the Emmi and Mendhe languages (see chapter 3), and Mandji’s use of Emmi for most text phrases in human language, that they reflect some sort of joint Emmi-Mendhe identity: after all. Mandji both received songs from Emmi songmen and sang regularly with the Mendhe songman, Jimmy Muluk. The fact that the only song that is not in the major mode is ‘Robert Man.guna’s Song’, however, presents some problems for this theory.238

Further notes on selected tracks

Here we provide some additional analytical notes on musical features of six songs (‘Happy Song No. 1’, ‘Happy Song No. 3’, ‘Karra Mele Ngany-endheni-nö’, ‘Song for Anson Bay’, ‘Robert Man.guna’s Song’ and ‘Happy Song No. 4’).

Track 3 ‘Happy song No. 1’

Somewhat unusually, in the later part of the item, Mandji sometimes suspends the beating during text phrases 1 (VS 3 and 4) or 1-2 (VS 5). This feature is also found in vocal section 1 of ‘Happy Song No. 2’ in track 5.

Track 6 ‘Happy Song No. 3’

Each vocal section consists of two melodic sections, separated by a breath. In vocal sections 1, 2, 4 and 6, the same vocable text phrase is repeated four times: twice over each melodic section (AA’AA). In vocal sections 3 and 7 the first two repetitions of the vocable text are replaced by wordless melisma over the melodic section 1 ([melisma]’AA).

It is clear that for this song, while varying the text and to some extent the melodic contour for melodic section 1, Mandji keeps the second melodic section relatively stable. This systematic variation in presentation of text over the same melody is reminiscent of Jimmy Muluk’s compositional procedures discussed in chapter 5.

Track 8 ‘Karra Mele Ngany-endheni-nö’

In his use of moderate even beating with Walakandha wangga beating patterns for instrumental section 1, Mandji appears to follow a pattern established by Jimmy Muluk whereby vocal sections in rhythmic modes 1 and 2 (both are used here) are followed by this pattern. The final pattern too follows Muluk’s pattern in that it uses doubled beating in the moderate tempo band (rhythmic mode 4e).

Track 9 ‘Song from Anson Bay’

The use of rhythmic mode 4b (moderate uneven quadruple) is relatively unusual in the corpus. Of the singers included in this study, only Mandji and Lambudju use this mode: in Lambudju’s case for one song only (Marett, 2005, p. 196), while for Mandji there is a second example at track 12. This is the only instance of rhythmic mode 4b (var).

Track 11 ‘Robert Man.guna’s Song’

The use of rhythmic mode 5a (fast even), together with vocable text, suggests that this might be another ‘happy song.’ Somewhat unusually this is in a Lydian mode (C D E F sharp G A B). Bobby Lambudju Lane provides the only other example of this modal practice in the corpus (Marett, 2005, 194).

Track 12 ‘Happy song No. 4’

This song begins in rhythmic mode 4c (moderate uneven triple) for the first vocal and instrumental sections, and moves in the second vocal section to rhythmic mode 4a (moderate even beating). Note that the ending is fairly messy, with relatively unsynchronised handclapping in the coda, perhaps because the audience members clapping along were unfamiliar with the song. It is slower than most happy songs, but the first two items of Muluk’s ‘Lerri’ song (chapter 5, track 19) also use moderate tempo.